1. A
(Brief)
History of
Research Testing On
Humans

2. First,
Why is human testing necessary?
Discuss.

3. Herophilus & Erasistratus
Called the “butchers of Alexandria” during the 3rd century BC, both performed some of the first dissections on human bodies… unfortunately some of them were alive at the time! They did revolutionize ideas about anatomy, such as the brain being the source of human intellect and reason instead of the heart. They also gave human dissection a bad name, and it would be outlawed in many places for the next 1600 years.

4. Period 1:
Pioneers in Dissection
Disproved misconceptions about the human body
Brain was control center, not the heart
Broke all but two of the Nuremberg Codes (2. (Wanted to better society’s understanding) and 8. (physicians went to medical) school were not broken)
Period 3:
Allegedly dissected and experimented on live humans
experiment on royal prisoners
Researched the human Nervous system (blood flow)
Broke all but 2,6, and 8
Period 4:
They dissected people to learn about human anatomy on prisoners while they were alive
broke all but 2,3, and 8
Period 5:
Performed vivisection (dissection of live subjects) of criminals and animals

5. Jenner & smallpox vaccine
Though inoculation was probably invented by the Turks years before, Edward Jenner is the person attributed with making the first vaccine. Milk pox was a common and non-deadly infection of cows that some milk maids would contract on their hands. Jenner observed that milk maids rarely got small pox (a very deadly and infectious disease). Jenner took cowpox from a milk maid’s hand and infected the gardener's 8 year old son with it by scratching his arm and rubbing pus from the cow pox in there. The child developed cow pox (not a big deal). Jenner then infected the boy with small pox- and to everyone’s relief the child was immune. To be sure Jenner went on to infect other nearby children, including his own son. Vaccine is named after vacca for cow.

6. Period 1:
Children cannot consent
Observations over hard evidence
Put patient at risk for death
Broke all but 2 and 6
Period 3:
Jenner noticed that milk maids who had cowpox did not catch small spox
Injected cowpox into young healthy boy who recovered quickly
Then injected boy with small pox and no symptoms were seen
Broke all but 1,2, 5, 9
Period 4:
Edward Jenner took pus from a cow pustule and injected it in a little boy
Vacca (cow in latin) is how vaccine became a name
People infected with cow pox immune to small pox
Broke all but 2, 4,6, and 8
Period 5:
Took fluid from a cow pox blister
inoculated an 8 year old boy
The kid survived and they found a vaccine for small pox
Violated all but 2, and 6

7. Stanley’s San Quentin experiments
Things didn’t get much better in the 20th century, just weirder. In 1940, Leo Stanley performed a bizarre series of experiments on prisoners in San Quentin, California. Stanley wanted to study the idea of “rejuvenation”- which was the practice of attempting to restore an aging man’s masculinity by having the testicles of a younger man implanted in him. Stanley moved from transplanting human testicles in prisoner to later implanting those from animals (primarily sheep, cows and pigs).

8. Period 1:
Involuntary sterilization
implanted testicles (mainly of animals)
False advertisement
Broke all but 4,5,6,8 and 9
Period 3:
Sex Gland Experiments
Believed in human rejuvenation by taking the sex glands of younger men and transplanting them in older men
Advocated sterilization of counties prisoners to prevent them passing on their “genetic defects” to their children
Performed 10,000 operations in 22 years
Used goat glands instead of human glans when they weren’t available
no consent, involuntary, potential risks of death, no scientific basis
Violates all but 6,7, and 8
Period 4:
Stanley tested on prisoners to increase mens rigor
He transplanted testicles of goats into prisoners
some glands came from executed prisoners
Violates all but 1 and 5
Period 5:
Dr. Leo Stanley worked and san quentin prison
performed surgery in which he implanted testicles from dead prisoners into live prisoners
also put in animal glands
Rejuvinated old men (controlled crime)
violated all but 1, 3 and 7

9. Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments
These infamous experiments were carried out on 600 poor African-American men in the South between by the U.S. Public Health Service. Of these men, 399 had syphilis already and 201 did not. The men were promised and received free medical care, food and free burial insurance for participating. None of the men were told they had the disease, nor were they given penicillin (the common treatment available at the time). Instead they were told they were being treated for “bad blood” a local term for a variety of illnesses. The goal of the study was to see what the long-term effects of syphilis were on the human body and brain. The long-term effects of course are insanity and death. From , the US government also infected prisoners and mental patients in Guatamala and then treated them with antibiotics. This still resulted in at least 83 deaths.

10. Period 1:
Participants really uninformed
Never actually Treated
Went on 39.5 years longer than planned
Violated all but number 8
Period 3:
Was to observe the progression of untreated syphilis in rural African American men in alabama
Promised free healthcare
Unethical because they didn’t inform the patients of the study
Didn’t tell patients they had syphilis and withheld penicillin (knowing it could cure the men)
Violated all but 3,6, 8,9 and 10
Period 4:
Took African Americans into treatment that lasted for 40 years
Treating for “bad blood”
Infected with syphilis and doctors didn’t cure them
Wanted to see how much longer it took African Americans to die in comparison to white counterparts
Period 5:
Wanted to see the effect of syphillis on black men
Told them they were being treated but it was a placebo
The men spread it and died
Went in with intent to study on the dead bodies, not to treat or cure

11. Nazis
Of course no one did unethical human experimentation like the Nazis (and Japanese). Under the direction of Josef Mengele- an unknown number of people (mostly Jews) were subjected to horrifying experimentation.

12. Period 1:
Technically they are qualified but they violated most rules
No consent
Medical torture
Period 3:
During WWII German physicians conducted painful and often deadly experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent
Twin experiments (sewing together)
Sterilized lazy people
Freezing people to study hypothermia
Changed pressure and altitude to study suffocation
Period 4:
Abused prisoner subjects to solve problems in the war and prove aryan superiority
no consent
often untested drugs
dangerous
Violates all codes
Period 5:
3 different categories (Aimed at survival for military, testing pharmaceuticals, advance racial Nazi world view
Hypothermia, injection of diseases, involuntary sterilization, mustard gas, low pressure chambers, twins, drinking seawater, doctors trial (disfigure/ trauma/ death)

13. Nuremburg Code
After the fall of Germany, the Nuremburg trials were held in 1947 to determine war crimes. When the public was made aware of the atrocities of Nazi experiments on humans, a code was set up called the Nuremburg Code- which was a set of ethical research principles for human experimentation.

14. Nuremberg Code of 1947
Required is the voluntary, well-informed, understanding consent of the human subject in a full legal capacity.
The experiment should aim at positive results for society that cannot be procured in some other way.
It should be based on previous knowledge (like, an expectation derived from animal experiments) that justifies the experiment.
The experiment should be set up in a way that avoids unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injuries.
It should not be conducted when there is any reason to believe that it implies a risk of death or disabling injury.
The risks of the experiment should be in proportion to (that is, not exceed) the expected humanitarian benefits.
Preparations and facilities must be provided that adequately protect the subjects against the experiment’s risks.
The staff who conduct or take part in the experiment must be fully trained and scientifically qualified.
The human subjects must be free to immediately quit the experiment at any point when they feel physically or mentally unable to go on.
Likewise, the medical staff must stop the experiment at any point when they observe that continuation would be dangerous.

15. At your table groups- look over the 10 points in the code.
Nuremburg Code
At your table groups- look over the 10 points in the code.
Discuss what points would have made Florey and Chain’s research with penicillin unethical.
Florey and Chain did not get the consent of the police man that they tested on (#1).
They were not sure about the purity or toxicity of the penicillin (#5, 7)