1. Saying the Same Thing

2. Concepts Counting by Synonomy Ambiguity Context Dependence Sense
Sentence token
Sentence type
Proposition
Statement
Synonomy
Ambiguity
Context Dependence
Sense
Reference
Indexical

3. What we’re doing here Arguing that there are necessary truths
Explaining how sentences have meaning in virtue of the ‘families’ to which they belong
Noting that the meaning of a sentence depends on the language in which it figures and, sometimes, its context of utterance.

4. Different Ways of Counting
8 individual objects

5. Different Ways of Counting
3 colors

6. Different Ways of Counting
2 shapes

7. Are they the same? Same shape, Different color Different shape,
Same color
The Moral: we can count things in different ways, and come up with different correct answers when counting the same objects.
There are 4 individual objects, 3 colors and 2 shapes represented in this picture.

8. Count the letters . . .
BANANA

9. BANANA Counting by TYPE
There are 3 letters of the alphabet in “banana”

10. Counting by TOKEN
BANANA
There are 6 individual letters in “banana”

11. Type/Token Ambiguity “My husband and I drive the same car.”
“Tweedledee and Tweedledum are identical twins.”

12. 2 sentence tokens - 1 sentence type
John is Paul’s brother
TYPE and TOKEN aren’t different kinds of things like apples and oranges--they’re just two different ways of counting the same things.
We can count sentences by token or by type.

13. 1 proposition John is Paul’s brother John is the male sibling of Paul
1, 2 and 3 express the same proposition because they have they have the same sense, i.e. dictionary-meaning. They are synonymous.
Counting by PROPOSITION is another way of counting the same things: sentences

14. What are propositions really???
Equivalence classes
example: denominations of bills
Equivalence relation
reflexive
symmetric
transitive

15. Equivalence Relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is the relation that holds between two elements if and only if they are members of the same cell within a set that has been partitioned into cells such that every element of the set is a member of one and only one cell of the partition.
These cells are formally called equivalence classes.
The intersection of any two different cells is empty
the union of all the cells equals the original set.
Examples
Being the same shape
Being the same color
Being the same (monetary) denomination

16. Equivalence Class 14 bills – 4 denominations
More about equivalence classes here

17. Synonomy You should eschew obfuscation. You should avoid obscurity.
Snow is white.
Owsnay isay itewhay.
Sentences are synonymous when they express the same proposition.
tomAHto
tomato

18. Ambiguity I’m high! Flying planes can be dangerous.
A sentence is ambiguous when it can be used to express different propositions.

19. Context Dependence
A sentence is context dependent when what it says depends upon the context of utterance, that is where, when, by whom and in what circumstances it is said.
Examples of context dependent sentences
I am a philosopher
Los Angeles is to the north of here
It’s 10 am now.
This dang thing is heavy!

20. Plato and Aristotle saying that they’re philosophers
I’m a philosopher
I’m a philosopher
Plato is a philosopher
Aristotle is a philosopher

21. Indexicals
Words whose reference changes systematically depending on where, when, by whom and in what circumstances they are uttered.
Examples: I, you, he, today, yesterday, tomorrow, here, there, this, that, now…

22. Sense/Reference Distinction
“meaning” is ambiguous!
“bachelor” means “unmarried male who never has been married.
I mean him!
Frege “Auf Sinn und Bedeuting”
Sense: dictionary-meaning
Reference: “aboutness”, picking out

23. Sense and Reference
square
sense
square
reference

24. Same Statement
Sentences make the same statement when they say the same thing about the same thing.
Example
50 is even.
The number of states in the US is even.
1 is always true but 2 was not true in 1812!
1812 Flag

25. Example: A Question from an Old Quiz
Somebody’s been eating my porridge
Somebody’s been eating Mom’s porridge
F__1 Papa and Mama are uttering the same token sentence.
T__2 Papa and Mama are uttering the same type sentence.
T__3 Papa and Mama are expressing the same proposition.
F__4 Papa and Mama are making the same statement.
F__5 Mama and Baby are expressing the same proposition.
T__6 Mama and Baby are making the same statement.

26. Which sentences say the same thing?
[stated Sep 10, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Yesterday was Thursday.
It depends on how you count!

27. Same proposition/different statements
[stated Sep 10, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Yesterday was Thursday.
1 and 2 have the same sense--same dictionary-meaning

28. Same statement/different propositions
[stated Sep 10, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Yesterday was Thursday.
1 and 3 don’t have the same dictionary-meaning but they pick out the same day.
They say the same thing about the same thing.

29. Translating into timeless sentences
[stated Sep 10, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Today is Thursday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Yesterday was Thursday.
1’ Sep 10, 2015 is a Thursday.
2’ Sep 11, 2015 is a Thursday.

30. not context- dependent
[stated Sep 10, 2015] Today is Tuesday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Today is Tuesday.
[stated Sep 11, 2015] Yesterday was Tuesday.
context- dependent
1’ Sep 10, 2015 is a Tuesday.
2’ Sep 11, 2015 is a Tuesday.
not context- dependent
We can translate context-dependent sentences into sentences that are not context-dependent

31. Summing up so far…
We distinguished different ways of counting sentences
by sentence token
by sentence type
by proposition
by statement
We noted that some sentences were context- dependent because they included indexicals but
that they could be translated into context- independent sentences.

32. The Moral of the Story
When we ask whether two sentences (or speakers) are “saying the same thing” we need to be clear about what we’re asking.
Expressing the same proposition?
Making the same statement?
Uttering the same noises (or making the same marks)?

33. A Puzzle About Necessary Truths
How We Argue in Philosophy
When we want to argue for a thesis we need to respond to objections
So sometimes we consider an argument for something we want to show is false
In order to refute it
We will consider a bad argument that is supposed to show there are no necessary truths
And refute it

34. Bad argument (supposed to show there are no necessary truths)
2 + 2 = 4 - true
2 + 2 = 5 - false
English
4 = ****
5 = *****
Actual World
2 + 2 = 4 - false
2 + 2 = 5 - true
English*
4 = *****
5 = **** W*

35. This argument can be generalized!
It is contingent that any given word has the sense it does: we can change language!
So it seems there can be no necessary truths!
But this is crazy: changing language doesn’t change the world! So we have to respond to this threat!

36. They’re making the different noises…
but expressing the same mathematical truth!
** + ** = ****
** + ** = ****
2 + 2 = 4
2 + 2 = 5
English-Speaker
English*-Speaker

37. Now they’re making the same noises…
but expressing the different mathematical propositions!
** + ** = *****
** + ** = ****
2 + 2 = 4
2 + 2 = 4
English-Speaker
English*-Speaker

38. Changing language doesn’t change the world!
True
** + ** = **** ** + ** = *****
False
2 + 2 = 4 - true
2 + 2 = 5 - false
English
4 = ****
5 = *****
Actual World
2 + 2 = 4 - false
2 + 2 = 5 - true
English*
4 = *****
5 = **** W*
Changing language doesn’t change the world!

39. Lincoln’s Riddle
If you call a tail a leg, then how many legs does a dog have?

40. Changing language doesn’t change the world!
Four.
Calling a tail a leg doesn’t make it one.
Changing language doesn’t change the world!