1. Chapter 11

2. Information structuring and speech acts 1. Pragmatics and syntax 1
Information structuring and speech acts 1. Pragmatics and syntax 1.1 Basic distinctions 1.2 Syntactic options and pragmatic considerations 1.3 Information structuring in a passage 2. Speech act theory 2.1 Components of speech acts 2.2 Taxonomy of speech acts 2.3 Appropriateness conditions on speech acts 2.4 Indirect speech acts 2.5 Politeness 3. The cooperative principle and conversational implicature

3. Information structuring and speech acts 1. Pragmatics and syntax 1
Information structuring and speech acts 1. Pragmatics and syntax 1.1 Basic distinctions •Given VS New -given: known to the hearer --mentioned previously in the previous context --or part of the communicative context --or assumed to be culturally known Subjects are typically given. Pronouns or unstressed nouns. -new: introduced into the discourse for first time. --new or unused for some period --expressed by full NPs, with more stress, modifiers spelled out in full Ex: (1) I must tell you about my move. (2) First, the movers arrived two hours late. (3) Then, they damaged my new couch. (4) The upholstery on the back is badly ripped. (5) And they dropped two boxes of dishes. (6)What a nightmare!(the move)

4. •Topic VS Comment -topic: what an utterance is about; usually the subject of the sentence; usually given. -comment: what is said about the topic; usually the predicate; usually new Ex: They damaged my new couch. •Contrast Opposition to another entity. Typically stressed Marked by “only” “rather than”. Most of my high school friends have moved away; only Phyllis still lives in town.

5. •Definite VS Indefinite -Definite: referent of the NP is familiar -Indefinite: referent of the NP is novel or unfamiliar; indefinite article (or any) + noun DefinitenessXGivenness: 1. indefinite + new A couple I know just returned from a vacation in Africa. 2. indefinite + given They visited four countries – a vacation they’ll never forget. 3. definite + given They went on a photographic safari in Tanzania. 4. definite + new The guide on their trip was excellent.

6. •Specific VS Nonspecific VS Generic -Specific: denotes a particular entity in the real world -Nonspecific: denotes no particular entity in the real world SpecificityXDefiniteness 1. specific + definite Tomorrow I’m going to polish the car. 2. nonspecific + indefinite I dream of buying an expensive car. 3. specific + indefinite I saw a car I liked yesterday. 4. nonspecific + definite I’m going to buy the first car off the production line. -Generic: refers to a set (class or category) GenericnessXDefiniteness 1. generic + indefinite Houses are expensive. A house is expensive. 2. generic + definite The house is the largest purchase you will make in your lifetime.

7. Christmas I like best; Thanksgiving I like least.
1.2 Syntactic options and pragmatic considerations
We use various syntactic forms to structure information in different ways.
•Fronting: Movement of a word, phrase, or clause to the beginning of the sentence.
Christmas I like best; Thanksgiving I like least.
Swimming I do everyday, but running very seldom.
-fronted info becomes the topic
-fronted element must be given and definite
*A movie I want to see.
That movie I want to see.
-to end-focus the important part
A very short run I can handle.

8. •Adverb Fronting: -fronting optional adverbial elements -to topicalize them Suddenly the car careered across the road. The day after tomorrow/on Tuesday I hope to return home. Working late, I missed my train. If you don’t stop playing that loud music, I’ll go crazy. Because Rosa’s leaving next week, we’re planning a party. When we get home, let’s watch a video.

9. •Adverb-fronting + inversion (subject and verb/auxiliary) -with locative adverbs and negative adverbs Out popped a clown. On the porch sat a fierce dog. Never have I seen such a sight. Here comes my brother. There is the book I was looking for.

10. •Left-dislocation

11. •Cleft-sentence -consists of: --a dummy-it subject --be --an item in cleft position --a relative clause Ex: Standard: Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday because it was his birthday. Transformed: It was this book [NP] that Jane gave to Bill. It was Bill [NP] who Jane gave this book to. It was Jane [NP] who gave this book to Bill. It was on Saturday [PP] that Jane gave this book to Bill. It was because it was his birthday [S–] that Jane gave this book to Bill. -clefted element is usually contrastive -isolating the new info -putting the focus towards the end -occasionally clefted element may be given His ego knew no bounds. It was his egoism (given) that I despised, but it was his brilliance (new) that I admired.

12. •Pseudocleft sentence Consists of: -a free relative clause -be -an NP or VP Ex: Standard: Henry studied linguistics at university. Transformed: What Henry studied at university was linguistics. What Henry did was study linguistics at university. -focus (new info) is postponed to the end -the new info maybe contrastive -free relative is given info -free relative is the topic

13. •Stress •Passive •Passive of experience Other topicalization transformations: •tough-movement •subject-to-subject raising •subject selection •there-insertion Other transformations that allow some degree of leftward movement •dative movement •particle movement

14. Focusing transformations •it-extraposition •extraposition from NP •subject-verb inversion •there-insertion •heavy NP shift •quantifier postposing •right-dislocation Relative Clauses •Non-Restrictive •Restrictive

15. 1.3 Information structuring in a passage

16. 2. Speech act theory 2. 1 Components of speech acts 2
2. Speech act theory 2.1 Components of speech acts 2.2 Taxonomy of speech acts 2.3 Appropriateness conditions on speech acts 2.4 Indirect speech acts 2.5 Politeness 3. The cooperative principle and conversational implicature