1. Critical thinking
11th Meeting

2. Definition
A.Critical thinking is a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills. This composite includes: (1) attitudes of inquiry that involve an ability to recognize the existence of problems and an acceptance of the general need for evidence in support of what is asserted to be true; (2) knowledge of the nature of valid inferences, abstractions, and generalizations in which the weight or accuracy of different kinds of evidence are logically determined; and (3) skills in employing and applying the above attitudes and knowledge

3. A.Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action

4. SUCCESSFUL ARGUMENTS persuade the reader by means of:
Clear premises and conclusions
Evidence, not unsupported claims and appeals to emotions
Consideration of the other side
Consideration of audience to whom argument is given
Use appropriate tone and diction
Avoidance of logical fallacies

5. Argument: The Toulmin Model
Claim: Main point or central message;
thesis statement
Support: Data, evidence, reasons, details
Warrant: Underlying assumptions implied
but not stated. Reader infers
assumptions.
Warrants are based on:
Authority: respect for credibility and trustworthiness of source
Substance: reliability of facts and evidence
Motivation: values and beliefs of audience and writer

6. EVALUATING EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT
Is the evidence:
SUFFICIENT
REPRESENTATIVE
RELEVANT
ACCURATE
FAIR AND BALANCED

7. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning:
Reasons from specific to general
Notices many facts and comes to a general conclusion
No certainty possible
Deductive Reasoning:
Reasons from general to specific
Starts with a hypothesis and inserts a fact and comes to a conclusion based on hypothesis
Certainty can be possible if valid and true syllogism (say some people)

8. Hypothetical Syllogism
If A then B
If B then C
If A then C
Example:
If we successfully develop nuclear fusion power, then power will become plentiful and cheap.
If power becomes cheap and plentiful, then the economy will flourish.
If we successfully develop nuclear fusion power, then the economy will flourish.

9. Disjunctive Syllogism
A or B
Not A B
Example:
Either Kerry won in 2004 or Bush did.
Kerry didn’t win.
Bush did win.

10. What is logically wrong with the following statements?
The Bible is true because it says so.
Boxing is dangerous because it is an unsafe sport.

11. Oversimplification Reductive Fallacy
Oversimplifying (reducing) the relation between causes and effects.

12. ??
If we make handguns illegal, the state will gain too much power and eventually put us all in concentration camps for the slightest infraction.
If we legalize marijuana, eventually everyone will start smoking it regularly (an after-dinner smoke) and then they’ll want to go on to more kinds of drugs – soon heroin will become legal and most of America will become heroine addicts.

13. Language Fallacies Emotional or biased language Equivocation
Ambiguity or obfuscation
Euphemism or PC language
Doublespeak
Pretentious language
Bureaucratic language
Jargon

14. Simple Apprehension, Judgment, Reason
Simple Apprehension: an operation of the mind whereby we abstract from the non-essential elements of a thing and recognize those essential elements which make it to be precisely that particular thing.
Judgment: an operation of the mind which unites two ideas by affirmation or separates by negation.
Reasoning / Mediate Inference: an operation of the mind that involves a process whereby from certain truths already known, we proceed to another which is different from those that are given but necessarily following from them.

15. Basic Concept: ARGUMENTS
Argument: a group of statements, one of which (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from the other or others (the premises).
Good arguments: those in which the conclusion really does follow from the premises
Bad arguments: those in which does not, even though it is claimed to

16. Basic Concept: Statement
Basis: Argument as a group of statement
Statement: a sentence that is either true or false; typically a declarative sentence.
Examples:
Hydrogen is combustible.
World War II began in 1939.
Some ducks are fish.
Abraham Lincoln was beheaded.

17. Recognizing Arguments
One of the most important tasks in the analysis of arguments is being able to distinguish premises from conclusion.
If what is thought to be a conclusion is really a premise, and vice versa, the subsequent analysis cannot possibly be correct.
Frequently, arguments contain certain indicator words that provide clues in identifying premises and conclusion.

18. 10 ways or techniques to improve critical thinking
Question the Evidence
Establish Criteria
Learn about Logic
Learn about Logical Fallacies
Identify the Premise
Learn about Cognitive Bias
Identify your Emotions
Identify your Genetic Instincts
Question your indoctrination
Try to Prove yourself Wrong