1. Revision
Biopsychology

2. Localisation of Function
The belief that the brain is organised in such a way that specific areas of the brain are specialised for specific cognitive and behavioural functions

4. https://youtu.be/B1XIvyBopak

6. The visual area is in the occipital lobe and this area receives and processes information about visual information. Different areas process different types of visual information such as colour, shape and movement.
The motor area is in the frontal lobe of the brain. It is responsible for voluntary movement and sends signals to the muscles in the body
The somatosensory area is located in the parietal lobe and receives incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations relating to temperature, pressure and pain.
The auditory area is located in the temporal lobe and processes and analyses acoustic information such as tempo, pitch and loudness

8. Wernicke’s area was discovered by Carl Wernicke
Wernicke’s area was discovered by Carl Wernicke. He studied a group of patients who could produce speech but failed to understand language. They had a lesion on the left temporal lobe – called Wernicke’s area. Damage to this area causes receptive aphasia.
Broca’s area, named after Paul Broca after studying a patient known as ‘Tan’ as this is all he could say. On post mortem examination this area on the left frontal lobe was badly damaged. This area is responsible for speech production and damage to this area can cause expressive aphasia.
Extension
Wernicke’s area receives sound impulses and processes their meaning. This information travels to Broca’s area where sounds are put together and then to motor area

9. Questions
Explain what is meant by the term localisation of function (3)
Outline the role of the motor cortex n the brain (3) Do this for all the areas.

10. Application questions
Jack had recently suffered a stroke and was left with the ability to understand language and could respond appropriately to instructions. However, he found it very difficult to produce words in a coherent manner.
Using your knowledge of localisation of function, explain why Jack has developed these difficulties (

11. Essay Question Discuss localisation of function in the brain (16)
Discuss – describe and evaluate
6 marks AO1
10 marks AO3

12. AO1 Start by defining what is meant by localisation of function.
Provide examples such as visual, motor, auditory areas.
Outline the language centres, their role and their location.

13. AO3 Research evidence – Case studies such as Tan can be used here.
You can also evaluate the quality of such research which is post mortem case studies which are an idiographic approach

14. AO3 Research evidence – Case studies such as Tan can be used here.
You can also evaluate the quality of such research which is post mortem case studies which are an idiographic approach

15. AO3 Challenges to the principle of LOF Lashley’s work (1930)
An opposing view to LOF comes from Lashley (1930). Equipotentiality states basic motor and sensory functions are localised but higher mental functions were not. This led to the idea that if an area of the brain was damaged, adjacent intact areas could take over the function. This is supported by studies on functional recovery after brain injury.
Therefore, the idea of LOF can be criticised for being biologically reductionist. This is because it reduces the control over cognitive and behavioural functions is due to a single brain area.

16. LOF explanations ignore individual differences.
This is a problem when a lot of the research has been carried out on very small samples.
One individual difference is biological sex and how this might influence the brain areas.
Harasty et al (1997) found that women have proportionally larger Broca and Wernicke’s areas compared to men. This might explain a females greater use of language.
This is a problem as research carried out on males cannot be generalised to females and it would be a form of beta bias to assume the brains of males and females are identical.

17. Evidence Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia
Aphasia is impaired ability to produce or understand speech.
Expressive aphasia (Broca) is an impaired ability to produce speech. Caused by damage to Broca's area in the left frontal lobe.
Receptive aphasia (Wernicke's) is an impaired ability to understand language. Caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe.

18. Key points
Localisation of Function is the principle that specific areas of the brain are specialised for certain tasks. These include language, memory, visual perception and hearing.
An opposing view to this comes from Lashley (1930)
Equipotentiality - basic motor and sensory functions are localised but higher mental functions were not. This led to the idea that if an area of the brain was damaged, adjacent intact ares could take over the function. This was supported by studies on functional recovery after brain injury.

19. Further Evaluation
Is language production confined to Broca's area?
Dronkers (2007) re-examined the preserved brain of two of Broca's patients, using MRI scans.
This revealed that other areas besides Broca's area were damaged. This suggests that there may be other areas involved in speech production. Damage to Broca's area tend to result in temporary speech production but damage to other areas as well results in more severe impairment.

20. Lashley Lashley' ideas criticised LOF
Lashley believed that the extent of brain damage would be determined by the size of area damaged rather than its specific location.
This research was supported by his research on rats. Lashley found that large lesions to the visual cortex of rats would reduce their maze learning but small lesions would not.

21. Further evaluation
Communication may be more important. Research has described a case in which a loss of the ability of Read resulted in damage to the connection between Wernicke's area visual cortex.
So it is damage to the connections between specific areas that is the problem.

22. Evaluation Idiographic approach. Reductionist methodology
Use of post martens compared to up to date technology

23. Question for Peer Marking
Outline what is meant by localisation of function (4)

24. Model Answer
Localisation of function means that the brain is organised in a highly systematic way, with functions particular to specific areas. (1) Simpler functions such as motor control are more likely to be localised in the cortex compared to more complex functions such as personality and learning. (1)Motor functions, such as control of voluntary muscles, are localised in the motor cortex, which is located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal cortex.(1) In the postcentral gyrus is the somatosensory cortex and this receives information from the senses. (1) Sensory and motor functions are highly localised in these particular areas of the left and right hemispheres. Language comprehension is localised in Wernicke’s area which is on the left hemisphere only and language production is localised in Broca’s area which again is only on the left hemisphere.(1)

25. Functional Recovery and brain Plasticity

27. Read and discuss
Brain plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity, is a term that refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience. Neuro represents neurons, the nerve cells that are the building blocks of the brain and nervous system, and plasticity refers to the brain's malleability.
Up until the 1960s, researchers believed that changes in the brain could only take place during infancy and childhood. By early adulthood, it was believed that the brain's physical structure was mostly permanent.
Modern research has demonstrated that the brain continues to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones in order to adapt to new experiences, learn new information and create new memories.
It is thought that the brain has a high level of plasticity up until your mid twenties. How can we apply this knowledge to make life better?

28. Brain Plasticity
The brains ability to modify its own structure and function as a result of experience

31. Research into Brain Plasticity
Maguire – Black Cab drivers
Davidson et al mediation study in Buddhist monks
Kuhn et al – video games
Blakemore and the kittens
Choose Maguire and one other.

32. Maguire (2000)
The aim of this study is to see if there are structural changes in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.

33. Who
Used MRI scans on 16 male, right handed taxi drivers who had been driving for more than 1.5 years.
A comparison group of 50 healthy right handed males who were not taxi drivers.

34. Findings
There was increased grey matter in the posterior region of the right and left hippocampi of the taxi drivers.
There was a correlation in the amount of time the participant had been a taxi driver and the increase in volume in the right, posterior hippocampus.

35. Conclusions
The Maguire study supports the role of experience on structural changes in the brain. This therefore shows that the brain has plasticity and can change as a result of experience.

36. Functional Recovery
Thanks to neuroplasticity – functional recovery is possible.
Functional recovery is when functions from damaged areas of the brain (through physical trauma, strokes, brain haemorrhages) are transferred to undamaged areas of the brain

37. How does functional recovery happen?
Neuronal unmasking – this is when synapses that have lay dormant due to a lack of stimulation become active. This may happen as the areas originally stimulated by the activity are damaged so other areas of the brain compensate.

38. Other factors that contribute to functional recovery
Age – although plasticity is life long, it has been found that functional recovery is better in younger people rather than old.
Time – after brain injury there is swelling and bruising which will take time to recover. We may start to recover functions when this initial trauma has reduced.

39. Research Taijiri et al – stem cells in rats
Elbert et al for discussion of age related functional recovery

40. Questions Explain what is meant by the term plasticity (2)
Outline evidence in relation to brain plasticity (4)
David is fourteen and last year he was hit by a bus and suffered head injuries. He made a full physical recovery but had trouble with speech and language comprehension. However, after one year, he has recovered nearly all his language abilities.
Use your knowledge of functional recovery to explain this (4)
Discuss evidence for plasticity and/or functional recovery after trauma (16)

41. Discuss evidence for plasticity and/or functional recovery after trauma (16)
AO1
AO3
Definitions of plasticity and functional recovery.
Elaborate on plasticity – what is it and refer to Maguire and what they found.
Elaborate on functional recovery – give examples of how this occurs. This could be a description of how neuronal unmasking works.
Further evidence for plasticity such as Kuhn and Davidson.
Brief evaluation of the research in this area.
Further discussion points on functional recovery such as reference to Elbert et al and the capacity for neural reorganisation in older brains.
Issues and debates – practical applications, reductionism in evidence such as Maguire. – neurorehabilitation which uses motor therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain

42. Lateralisation of Function
For this use the split brain research and remember in most people language is lateralised in the left hemisphere.

43. Outline what is meant by the divided field technique (3)
Describe what research has found out about hemispheric lateralisation (6)
Describe and briefly evaluate split brain research (8)
Briefly explain how unusual behaviour in split brain patients can be tested (2)
Describe and evaluate research into hemispheric lateralisation (16)

44. Definitions
Lateralisation of Function - the idea that the two different hemispheres may have different specific skills associated with them.
We have found out that language is lateralised in the left hemisphere.
Right hemisphere specialised in visual-motor skills.
Because the two hemispheres are connected they communicate. The connecting bundle of nerve fibres is called the corpus callosum

45. The two hemispheres are connected by a bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum

47. Background: Split-brain patients are individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure where the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, is cut. This procedure, which separates the two hemispheres, was used as a treatment for severe epilepsy.

48. Sperry's split brain research
A commissurotomy is when the corpus callosum is cut. This is done in cases of severe epilepsy. The patients are then called split brain patients.
Sperry used divided fields tests.
The individual fixates on a central point.
Presented information either to the right or left visual field.
If information is presented to the right visual field (left hemisphere) the patient can verbalise what they saw.
If information is presented to the left visual field (right hemisphere) then the patient says they saw nothing.

49. Findings explained.
Information to then LVF is processed by the right hemisphere. There is no language in the right hemisphere so they can not say what they see.
Information from the RVF is processed by the left hemisphere. This is the language hemisphere so they can say what they see.

50. Other findings from Sperry.
Without looking they would pick up an object with the right hand and could verbally describe what they picked up.
They could not describe what they had picked up with the left hand.
Facial recognition (a very important skill for humans) is the responsibility of the right hemisphere.

51. Evaluation
Language may not be lateralised - because of plasticity it may be possible to learn to speak out of the right hemisphere. J.W. can speak about information given to left or right brain.
Split brain studies used small samples
The samples were made up of patients often suffering from severe epilepsy therefore their brain function may not be typical of non epileptic brains.
Age may also be a factor - research has found language becomes more lateralised with increasing age in children and adolescents. However, after the age of 25 lateralisation of language decreased with each decade of life.

52. This method uses an idiographic approach.
Turk et al. (2002) discovered a patient who suffered damage to the left hemisphere but developed the capacity to speak in the right hemisphere, eventually leading to the ability to speak about the information presented to either side of the brain.
This suggests that perhaps lateralisation is not fixed and that the brain can adapt following damage to certain areas.
This method uses an idiographic approach.
The reductionist nature of the methodology allows for the isolation of variables for study.
In real life information is not just presented to the right or left visual field.

53. Outline what is meant by the divided field technique (3)
Describe what research has found out about hemispheric lateralisation (6)
Describe and briefly evaluate split brain research (8)
Briefly explain how unusual behaviour in split brain patients can be tested (2)
Describe and evaluate research into hemispheric lateralisation (16)

54. Outline what is meant by the divided field technique

55. Plasticity and functional recovery.
See essay and answer questions using this.
What is meant by brain plasticity. (2)
Outline evidence for brain plasticity (6)
Outline evidence of functional recovery after trauma (6)

56. Ways of studying the brain

57. Key terms
EEG - a method of recording changes in the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp.
ERP - a technique that takes raw EEG data and uses it to investigate cognitive processing of a specific event. It takes multiple readings and averages them to separate brain activity not associated with the presentation of the stimulus.
Post Mortem - a way of examining the brain after death.
fMRI- a technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting changes in blood oxygenation and flow that indicate increased neural activity.

58. fMRI
Measures blood flow in the brain when an activity is given to the individual.
Neurons in the brain that are most active use the most energy.
This requires glucose and oxygen.
The fMRI scan detects changes in the haemoglobin from oxygenated to deoxygenated.
The scanner detects the differences in the magnetic quality of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
This creates a moving 3D map of the brain

59. Images show 1-4 seconds after the event occurs.
Spatial resolution
Approximately 1-2 mm accuracy
Temporal resolution
Images show 1-4 seconds after the event occurs.

60. EEG Measures electrical activity through electrodes on the scalp.
Information is processed in the brain in the form of electrical patterns

62. Desynchronised = awake
The EEG detects the different brain waves and also a synchronised brain wave pattern (where the brain waves can be detected.
Desynchronised where the brain waves are indistinguishable.
Desynchronised = awake
Synchronised = asleep

63. Event relate potential
Related to the EEG – as use similar equipment.
The difference is that the participant is given a stimulus and the researcher looks for activity related to that stimulus.

64. ERP
This presentation of the stimulus is repeated hundreds of time and the activity is averaged out over these presentations.
The latency is measured.
ERP’s that occur before 100milliseconds are known as sensory
ERP’s that occur after 100 milliseconds are known as cognitive.

66. Almost in real time as show activity every millisecond.
Spatial resolution
This is poor as cannot tell us exactly where the activity is only the general areas.
Temporal Resolution
For ERP and EEG
Almost in real time as show activity every millisecond.

67. Post Mortem Researchers study the physical brain of a deceased person.
You can look at the neuroanatomical structure and neurochemical aspects of the brain.
Contributes to the understanding of disorders:
Schizophrenia – high number of dopamine receptors especially in the limbic system.
Use Broca as an example as well.

69. Examples in psychology
EEG's have been used to measure the different brain waves associated with stages of sleep. They can also be used to detect disorders such as epilepsy.
ERG's can be used to demonstrate information processing. They are useful for looking at cognitive processing of presented stimulus. Separated into waves occurring in the first 100ms of presentation and after 100ms.
fRMI is a technique for measuring blood flow in particular areas of the brain. This can show us what part of the brain is active when engaging in certain tasks. As an area become more active there is an increased demand for oxygen. The brain responds by increasing the blood flow to this area. In psychology we can give a participant a task or stimuli and see what areas of the brain show the greater activity.
Post morgen examinations are used to look at the underlying brain structure involved in particular conditions. HM's post mortem revealed damage to the hippocampus and Tan's post mortem revealed damage to Broca's area.

70. fMRI
EEG
ERP
Post Mortem
Spatial resolution
1-2mm – very accurate
Superficial
Temporal resolution
1-4 seconds – quite delayed
Every millisecond
Invasive?
Non invasive
Compare with PET
Causation
Do not provide a direct measure of neural activity just changes in blood flow.
The activity is detected in different areas of the brain simultaneously so difficult to draw accurate conclusions
This is better as the activity is linked to the cause (stimulus)
The behavioural deficit does not necessarily link to the brain changes.
Cause and effect difficult

71. Discuss ways of studying the brain
Two ways of studying the brain in outline
Evaluate the both in terms of spatial and temporal resolution, causation and invasive vs non-invasive.
Issues and debates –
biological reductionism
Determinism
Experimental reductionism

72. Short answer questions
Outline one way of studying the brain (4)
Describe and evaluate one way of studying the brain (8)
Identify and explain one similarity and one difference in ERP and EEG (4)
Compare two methods of studying the brain (4)