1. BLOOD
Provides a mechanism for rapid transport of nutrients, waste products, respiratory gases and cells
Powered by the pumping action of the heart

2. Introduction Cardiovascular System Lymphatic System Circulatory System
System made up of blood vessels, blood and heart. Major function is to transport nutrients, gases and hormones to the cells and pick up wastes from cells to transport them to areas of body where they are excreted
Lymphatic System
Network of vessels that return the fluid escaped from blood vessels back to the bloodstream
Includes lymphocytes, lymphoid tissue and lymphoid organs which fight infections and give immunity to disease
Circulatory System
Together the cardiovascular system and lymphatic system make up the circulatory system

3. Functions Of Blood
Transportation - the blood transports dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes.
Protection - the blood restricts fluid losses through damaged vessels. Platelets in the blood and clotting proteins minimize blood loss when a blood vessel is damaged.
Regulation
Blood regulates the pH and electrolyte composition of the interstitial fluids.
Blood regulates body temperature.

4. Composition Of Blood Contains cellular and liquid components
A specialized connective tissue
Blood cells – formed elements
Plasma – fluid portion and fibrinogen
Blood volume
Males: 5 – 6 liters
Females: 4 – 5 liters
The pH of blood is about

5. Formed Elements Blood cells Staining of blood cells
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Staining of blood cells
Acidic dye – eosin – stains pink
Basic dye – methylene blue – stains blue and purple

6. Blood Plasma Straw-colored, sticky fluid portion of blood
Approximately 90% water
Contains:
Ions – Na+ and Cl-
Nutrients – sugars, amino acids, lipids, cholesterol, vitamins and trace elements
Three main proteins - Albumin (60%), globulin (35%), fibrinogen (4%)
Dissolved Gasses – including O2 and CO2
Waste Products – other protein wastes such as urea and bilirubin

7. Composition of Whole Blood
Figure 19.1b

8. Composition of Whole Blood
Figure 19.1c

9. Overview: Composition of Blood
Hematocrit – measure of % RBC
Males: 47% ± 5%
Females: 42% ± 5%
Figure 17.1

10. Wright’s Stain
Figure 17.2b

11. Erythrocytes – Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
Oxygen-transporting cells
7.5 µm in diameter (diameter of capillary 8 – 10µm)
Most numerous of the formed elements
Females: 4.3 – 5.2 million cells/cubic millimeter
Males: 5.2 – 5.8 million cells/cubic millimeter
Made in the red bone marrow in long bones, cranial bones, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae
Average lifespan 100 – 120 days

12. RBC Structure And Function
Have no organelles or nuclei
Hemoglobin – oxygen carrying protein
Each RBC has about 280 million hemoglobin molecules
Biconcave shape – 30% more surface area

13. Leukocytes – White Blood Cells (WBCs)
Protect the body from infectious microorganisms
4,800 – 11,000/cubic millimeter
Function outside the bloodstream in loose connective tissue
Diapedesis – circulating leukocytes leave the capillaries
WBCs have a nucleus and are larger than RBCs
Most produced in bone marrow
Lifespan of 12 hours to several years

14. Leukocytes – White Blood Cells (WBCs)
Two types of leukocytes
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
Differential WBC Count
Never
Let
Monkeys
Eat
Bananas
Figure 17.5

15. Type Of White Blood Cells Lymphocytes (B Cells and T Cells)
% By Volume Of WBC
Description
Function
Neutrophils
60 – 70 %
Nucleus has many interconnected lobes; blue granules
Phagocytize and destory bacteria; most numerous WBC
Eosinophils
2 – 4 %
Nucleus has bilobed nuclei; red or yellow granules containing digestive enzymes
Play a role in ending allergic reactions
Basophils
< 1 %
Bilobed nuclei hidden by large purple granules full of chemical mediators of inflammation
Function in inflammation medication; similar in function to mast cells
Lymphocytes (B Cells and T Cells)
20 – 25 %
Dense, purple staining, round nucleus; little cytoplasm
the most important cells of the immune system; effective in fighting infectious organisms; act against a specific foreign molecule (antigen)
Monocytes
4 – 8 %
Largest leukocyte; kidney shaped nucleus
Transform into macrophages; phagocytic cells

16. Erythrocytes are smaller than Leukocytes.

17. Granulocytes Neutrophils – most numerous WBC
Phagocytize and destroy bacteria
Nucleus – has two to six lobes
Granules pick up acidic and basic stains
Figure 17.4a

18. Granulocytes Eosinophils – compose 1 – 4% of all WBCs
Play roles in ending allergic reactions, parasitic infections
Figure 17.4b

19. Granulocytes Basophils – about 0.5% of all leukocytes
Nucleus – usually two lobes
Granules secrete histamines
Function in inflammation mediation, similar in function to mast cells

20. Agranulocytes Lymphocytes – compose 20 – 45% of WBCs
The most important cells of the immune system
Nucleus – stains dark purple
Effective in fighting infectious organisms
Act against a specific foreign molecule (antigen)
Two main classes of lymphocyte
T cells – attack foreign cells directly
B cells – multiply to become plasma cells that secrete antibodies
Figure 17.4d

21. Agranulocytes Monocytes – compose 4–8% of WBCs The largest leukocytes
Nucleus – kidney shaped
Transform into macrophages
Phagocytic cells
Figure 17.4e

22. Summary of Formed Elements
Table 17.1

23. Platelets Structure Function
Small cellular fragments; originate in bone marrow from giant cell megakaryocyte
Contain several clotting factors – calcium ions, ADP, serotonin
Function
Involved in stopping bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged; Process is called hemostasis

24. Blood Cell Formation
Hematopoiesis – process by which blood cells are formed
100 billion new blood cells formed each day
Takes place in the red bone marrow of the humerus, femur, sternum, ribs, vertebra and pelvis
Red marrow – actively generates new blood cells
Contains immature erythrocytes
Remains in epiphyses, girdles, and axial skeleton
Yellow marrow – dormant
Contains many fat cells
Located in the long bones of adults
Tissue framework for red marrow
Reticular connective tissue

25. Cell Lines in Blood Cell Formation
All blood cells originate in bone marrow
All originate from one cell type
Blood stem cell (pluripotential hematopoeitic stem cell)
Lymphoid stem cells - give rise to lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cells - give rise to all other blood cells

26. Cell Lines in Blood Cell Formation
Genesis of erythrocytes
Committed cells are proerythroblasts
Remain in the reticulocyte stage for 1–2 days in circulation
Make up about 1–2% of all erythrocytes
Formation of leukocytes
Granulocytes form from myeloblasts
Monoblasts enlarge and form monocytes
Platelet-forming cells from megakaryoblasts, break apart into platelets

27. The Blood Throughout Life
First blood cells develop with the earliest blood vessels
Mesenchyme cells cluster into blood islands
Late in the second month the liver and spleen take over blood formation
Bone marrow becomes major hematopoietic organ at month 7

28. RBC life span and circulation
Replaced at a rate of approximately 3 million new blood cells entering the circulation per second
Damaged or dead RBCs are recycled by phagocytes
Components of hemoglobin individually recycled
Heme stripped of iron and converted to biliverdin, then bilirubin
Iron is recycled by being stored in phagocytes, or transported throughout the blood stream bound to transferrin

29. Feedback Regulation of Erythropoiesis
- regulated by renal oxygen content.
- Erythropoietin, a glycoprotein hormone, is produced by renal cells in response to a decreased renal blood O2 content.
- Erythropoietin stimulates erythrocyte production in the red bone marrow.

30. A drop in renal blood oxygen level can result from:
A drop in renal blood oxygen level can result from:
1) reduced numbers of red blood cells due to hemorrhage or excess RBC destruction.
reduced availability of oxygen to the blood, as might occur at high altitudes or during pneumonia.
3) increased demands for oxygen (common in those who are engaged in aerobic exercise).

31. Ways to increase Red Blood Cell Count in Sports
Legal
Illegal
raise RBC count by training athletes at high altitude
use erythropoietin, androgen, or their analogs

32. Dietary Requirements for Erythropoiesis
Iron
vitamin B12
folic acid
More important to women due to the loss of blood during menstruation

33. Red Blood Cell Turnover
Figure 19.5

34. Human Blood Groups

35. Human Blood Groups
- were learned from tragedies (death) caused by mismatch during transfusion in ancient time.
- ABO blood types were identified in 1900 by Karl Landstein (1930 Nobel laureate).
- Other blood types were identified later.

36. Agglutinogens Blood type is determined by
are specific glycoproteins on red blood cell membranes.
All RBCs in an individual carry the same specific type of agglutinogens.

37. ABO Blood Groups
Type A: RBCs carry agglutinogen A.
Type B: RBCs carry agglutinogen B.
Type O: RBCs carry no A nor B agglutinogens.
Type AB: RBCs carry both A and B agglutinogens.

38. Type A blood RBCs carry type A agglutinogens.
RBCs carry type A agglutinogens.
- Plasma contain preformed antibodies,
Agglutinin B, against B agglutinogens. A A A A A A A B A B B B B

39. Agglutinins - are preformed antibodies in plasma
- bind to agglutinogens that are not carried by host RBCs
- cause agglutination --- aggregation and lysis of incompatible RBCs.
Agglutinin B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B

40. Mix Type A plasma with Type B RBCs

41. Type B recipient

42. Type B blood B RBCs carry type B agglutinogens.
- Plasma contain agglutinin against A agglutinogens. B B A B B A B B B B A A A A

43. Type O blood - RBCs carry neither type A nor type B agglutinogens.
- Plasma contain agglutinin against both A and B agglutinogens.
- The person can accept only type O blood transfusion. A A B B B B A A A A

44. Blood Type Agglutinogen (on RBC) Agglutinin (in Plasma) A B O A & B AB
Summary of ABO Blood Groups
Blood Type
Agglutinogen
(on RBC)
Agglutinin
(in Plasma) A B O
A & B AB

45. Blood Type Match A B O AB
Yes No
Yes? D R

46. Rh Blood Groups
Classify blood groups based on Rh agglutinogens other than A/B agglutinogens
Rh positive
- RBCs contain Rh agglutinogens. Rh A A Rh A Rh Rh A
- The majority of human beings is Rh positive.

47. Rh negative - The RBCs contain no Rh agglutinogens.
Agglutinins against Rh-positive RBCs are produced after Rh-negative blood sees Rh- positive RBCs. A A Rh A Rh Rh A Rh Rh A Rh B A A A

48. The problem with a Rh-negative mother and her Rh-positive fetus.

49. First Preganancy no anti-Rh
Protected by the placenta-blood barrier, the mother is not exposed to Rh agglutinogens until the time of childbirth due to placental tearing.
no Rh

50. Generation of anti-Rh agglutinins
no Rh

51. Born with severe anemia
Treatment:
use anti-Rh  globulin to mask Rh agglutinogens

52. Why does blood clot?
When small blood vessels get broken, blood escapes from the closed circulatory system
Our bodies create a clot which ‘seals’ the damaged blood vessels preventing excessive blood loss and helping to prevent pathogens from entering the body
Prothrombin and fibrinogen are plasma proteins which circulate in the blood
Platelets are cell fragments which also circulate

53. Blood clotting sequence
Blood vessel is damaged
Damaged cells release chemicals which stimulate platelets to adhere to the damaged area
Other platelets begin adhering to those platelets
To strengthen the plug, the damaged tissue and platelets release chemicals called clotting factors which convert prothrombin into thrombin
Thrombin is an active enzyme which catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into the relatively insoluble fibrin
Fibrin is a fibrous protein which forms a mesh-like network that helps to stabilize the platelet plug
More cellular debris gets trapped in the fibrin mesh and soon a stable clot has formed preventing both further blood loss and entry of pathogens

55. Hemophilia Inherited blood disorder which is sex-linked Most are male
People born with hemophilia have little or no clotting factor

56. Primary Immune Response
Macrophage encounters a foreign antigen and engulfs the possible pathogen by phagocytosis
Antigens of the invader are displayed on the cell membrane of the macrophage – this is known as antigen presentation
Leukocytes known as helper-T cells chemically recognize the antigen being presented and become activated
Helper-T cells chemically communicate with the specific B cell type (which has also come in contact with the antigens) that is able to produce the antibody needed

57. Cell cloning
When a helper-T cell activates a specific B cell, the activated B cell type begins a series of cell division known as cell cloning
Types
Antibody-secreting plasma cells – secrete antibodies immediately and help to fight off the primary infection
Memory cells – do no secrete antibodies during the primary infection, but are long-lived cells which remain circulating in the bloodstream waiting for a subsequent infection

58. Principles of true immunity
Challenge and response
Immune system challenged by an antigen during 1st infection in order to develop an immunity
Macrophages, helper-T cells, B cells
Clonal selection
Identification of plasma B cells
Multiple cell divisions to build up #s of same cell
Memory cells
Provide long-term immunity

59. Types of immunity Active Immunity
Always leads to the production of memory cells
Provides long-term immunity
Passive Immunity
When an organism acquires antibodies which were produced in another organism
Only the organism which produces the antibodies has the memory cells
Mother to fetus through placenta
From mother’s colostrum
Injection of antibodies in antisera (antivenoms produced for treatment of poisonous snake and spider bites)

60. How does a vaccine result in immunity?
One cannot be immune to a pathogen before being exposed to it at least once
For many diseases, vaccines have been developed that act as the first exposure to the pathogen
Vaccine is developed by weakening a pathogen and then injecting the pathogen into the body
Methods:
Selecting a weak strain
Heating the pathogen
Chemical treatment of pathogen
Infection is not prevented, but the secondary immune response is quicker and more intense than the primary response