2. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad baculum)
Threat of force or use of force as a means to irrelevantly sway a person’s opinion.

3. Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)
An appeal for sympathy

4. Appeal to authority
A testimonial or statement from a person who is an authority in the field is relevant. If it comes from a person who is famous in another field, it is irrelevant.

5. False Cause
Post hoc ergo propter hoc means “after this, therefore because of this.” This form of false cause assumes that when one event happens after another event, the earlier event is the cause of the second, even though the two may be logically unconnected.
Example: “I ate garlic the night before my math exam, and I got a grade of 89 on the test. Garlic must stimulate my powers of concentration.”

6. False Cause
The second form of false cause is pro cause non causa. In this fallacy, one ignores the true cause and identifies a false cause. Revising the earlier example, one might say “I ate garlic last night while I was studying and I got a score of 89 on my math test. Garlic helps me concentrate.” Perhaps the true cause of the respectable grade on the math test was the studying.

7. Argument from Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantium)
Arguing that the failure to find evidence supporting a claim proves that claim is false. For example, “There is no proof that you did not steal my water bottle, so you can’t deny it.” The use of the lack of evidence as a premise, as if a lack of proof constituted proof.

8. Personal Attack, Abusive (argumentum ad hominem)
An irrelevant attack on an opponent rather than on the opponent’s evidence or argument.

9. Personal Attack, Circumstantial (argumentum ad hominem)
This irrelevant attack on an opponent rather than on the opponent’s evidence or argument relates to a person’s circumstances, such as his or her ethnicity, national origin, gender, personal appearance, religion, family, social class, profession, level of education, location of residence, etc.

10. False Analogy
In a false analogy, two things that are not alike are compared as if they were the same.

11. Bandwagon Appeal (argumentum ad populum)
An argument based on the assertion that the argument is valid simply because everyone else believes in the argument.