1. Without using your notes:
What for Aristotle is meant by the term Eudaimonia? (Clue: It isn’t happiness)
What are some of the differences between this and happiness?
What are some of the traditional ‘needs’ people might say we should aim for in life?
Why does Aristotle believe each of these cannot be all there is to a ‘good’ life?

2. Lesson Objective
To understand what is meant by the terms ergon (function), arête (virtue) and characteristic activity according to Aristotle.
To examine the function argument given by Aristotle and how he thinks this will allow us to achieve Eudaimonia.
To look at virtues in more detail, including ho we acquire and develop them.

3. Function Argument
We ended last lesson by stating that in order to have a ‘good’ life and therefore achieve Eudaimonia, Aristotle believed we had to perform our function as humans correctly.
This is sometimes known as his ‘function argument’ and you need to be aware of how this argument works.

4. What did you find out?
How do we decide whether something is good according to Aristotle? (Bonus: Use the greek term!)
What do we call qualities that help us achieve this aim? (Bonus: Use the greek term!)

5. Function > Good
In Aristotles way of thinking (teleological), everything (both every action and every object) has it’s meaning and a FUNCTION.
How well something performs it’s FUNCTION defines how GOOD it is.
This FUNCTION is also sometimes referred to as a:
CHARACTERISTIC ACTIVITY (i.e. the thing something was made to do).
In the original Greek ERGON
What is the ERGON of a clothes peg?
How GOOD are these clothes pegs at fulfilling that purpose?
What qualities would a GOOD clothes peg have?

6. Qualities / Arête / Virtues
When we discuss whether or not something fulfils its ERGON well we usually aim to identify certain qualities that would help or hinder that aim.
A quality like this (something that helps) is what Aristotle refers to as an ARÊTE, this can be translated as ‘excellence’ or more specifically ‘virtue’.
Sharpness would be a virtue in a knife.
Good focus would be an arête in an eye.

7. Qualities or Arête Can-openers Coats Sun Tan Lotion Guitar Player
What virtues would you say we should look for in the following things (TPS)?
Can-openers
Coats
Sun Tan Lotion
Guitar Player
Doctor
(Tip: If you’re struggling, start by identifying the function (final cause) of each thing, then ask what it would need to perform that function well – that is the arête)

8. What did you find out?
How do we decide whether something is good according to Aristotle? (Bonus: Use the greek term!)
What do we call qualities that help us achieve this aim? (Bonus: Use the greek term!)

9. What did you find out?
Why does Aristotle also think that humans have a function?
What is the function of humans?
How do humans therefore live a good life and achieve eudaimonia?

10. Why do humans have a function?
Aristotle gives two reasons as to why he thinks this idea of function / ergon also applies to humans:
People with different occupations (flute-players, plumbers etc.) all have functions, so is it likely, Aristotle asks, that these occupations all have a function whilst ‘man has none’?
Secondly, we can see that the parts of a human, our eyes, our hands and feet all have functions, so shouldn’t we assume that man as a whole has a function?

11. The Function Argument
Two options: Either you can assume Aristotle is correct and we do have a function… Or you can take the view that when he talks about ‘ergon’ he actually means something that distinguishes us from other creatures - a ‘characteristic activity’ as we mentioned earlier…

12. The Function Argument
Regardless of which option you take, Aristotle continues:
He asks what is our ergon?
What are our arêtes in order to achieve that ergon?
If we perform this ergon well, will we have a good life?

13. What is our function?
Our function, according to Aristotle must be something unique to humans. It’s no use us having a characteristic activity that we share with other creatures, otherwise it’s not really a characteristic of humanity.

14. So we can say he basically means we have a ‘rational mind’.
What is our function?
The one thing that makes humans unique is that we have rationality or reason. So this must be our function, our way of achieving Eudaimonia. It’s important to note here that Aristotle isn’t saying our way to Eudaimonia is simply reason, we can’t think our way there – it’s to live our lives guided by reason, this is our characteristic activity as humans (our Ergon) we do things according to reason.
It’s important to note here that Aristotle often refers to rationality being part of our soul. The actual term he uses is psyche which means something closer to ‘mind’ than the traditional spiritual soul we’ve discussed before.
So we can say he basically means we have a ‘rational mind’.

15. So A Good Human?...
We said before a good X is one that performs its characteristic activity well, and that it will need certain qualities (virtues) in order to do this.
Our ergon or characteristic activity is to live according to reason, this would make us a ‘good’ human. Our virtues are the things that enable us to live according to reason.
Ultimately this therefore means only a virtuous person can achieve Eudaimonia. Exactly what a ‘virtuous’ person is will be the discussion for the rest of this unit.

16. A Quick Summary
“So eudaimonia consists in the activity of the soul in accordance with the virtues (or if there are more than one kinds of virtue, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind)” Finally, we must add that this must apply to a person’s life as a whole. A day or even year of living well doesn’t amount to a good life, just as a good clothes peg must last longer than a day.

17. Putting it all together - The function argument:
Everything has a function (ergon), this is clear in Aristotle’s teleological world view.
Humans must therefore also have a function (ergon).
The only thing unique to humans, our characteristic activity, our function – is the ability to act according to reason.
To be a good X requires that X fulfils it’s function well, through the exercising of particular virtues (arête).
Virtues are the thing that helps / enables something to perform it’s function.
Therefore to be a good human requires that we act according to reason and practice those virtues (arête) that enable us to do so.
Therefore a good / flourishing life (Eudaimonia) for humans is one lived according to reason, in which the virtues that enable this are exercised.

18. What did you find out?
Why does Aristotle also think that humans have a function?
What is the function of humans?
How do humans therefore live a good life and achieve eudaimonia?

19. Quick Summary So Far
Everyone’s actions are guided by particular aims or ‘goods’. We want to achieve these things to add value to our lives.
These ‘goods’ are in fact guided by some ultimate aim or ‘good’. One that will make our lives extremely valuable and is not wanted for anything else.
The ultimate aim for humans in life is happiness, or more specifically – Eudaimonia.
Important point: Eudaimonia means more than just ‘happiness’ it means flourishing or living well.
Popular versions of living well are not enough. Pleasure, wealth, honour and moral goodness are not Eudaimonia. Although they may not be bad short-term goals.
To live a good life and achieve Eudaimonia, we must perform our function and purpose as humans.
Our function as humans is to live according to reason – it is the only thing unique to us.
Therefore the ‘good’ life for a human is one guided by reason, utilising the virtues that enable us to do this.
???

20. What are virtues then?
According to Aristotle, a virtue (arête) is a trait of mind or character that helps us achieve a good life, which Aristotle argues is a life in accordance with reason.
There are two types of virtue – intellectual virtues and moral virtues.
Intellectual Virtues
Being able to make informed, rational choices about the right way to act in any given situation.
(We’ll discuss this in greater detail when we consider ‘practical wisdom’ later on in the topic).
Some examples of these virtues might be: Common sense, Wisdom, Understanding and Practical Skill.
Moral Virtues
Dispositions or traits of character that ensure that we actually feel and act appropriately in these situations.
Aristotle gave a list of some moral virtues, which includes: Courage, Generosity, Friendliness, Honesty and Temperance.
For the moment we’re interested in Moral Virtues – How do we actually acquire them, develop them and achieve Eudaimonia?

21. States of Character
When Aristotle says that Virtues are states of character, what does he mean?
We might also call states of character a person’s dispositions - how they might feel, how they think, how they react, the sorts of choices they make, and the actions they perform in different circumstances.
So as an example we might say someone has a short-tempered character if they are disposed to feel angry quickly and often; quick-witted if they can think on their feet; intemperate if they get drunk often and excessively.
What we find pleasant or enjoyable also reveals our character.

22. Virtues as Dispositions
Some states of character / character traits, for example being short-tempered stop us from leading a good life – these are vices, and they are often guided by our desires or passions.
Other traits of character, such as being kind, help us to lead a good life – and these are the virtues.
Remember: Virtues are traits that help the thing in question fulfil it’s function and become a good example of that thing.
So, in us, a virtue of character is a disposition to feel, desire and choose ‘well’, or ‘rationally’ which is necessary if we are to live well and so achieve eudaimonia.

23. Virtues and Vices – Think / Pair / Share
What kind of traits of character do you think would contribute to someone having a good / flourishing life (virtues)? What kind of traits of character do you think would result in someone having a bad life (vices)?

24. Test the theory…
Think of 3 of your character traits. (How would people describe you?)
For each one: What kind of actions might it lead you to take?
Does this display a virtue, or a vice according to Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean?
Remember: It is a vice if it generally has a negative impact on your life.

25. Acquiring the Virtues
So now we have an idea of what the Virtues are, and what they are meant to do, we need to find out how we identify and acquire them to start with.
Go back to your character traits (positive or negative!)
For each one – how did you get it? Where did it come from?
Is it something you just do naturally? Or have you had to work at it?

26. Education and Habit So are the virtues nature or nurture?
Aristotle: Nurture. Whilst we may be born with certain dispositions and potentials, these only become actual through exercise, practice, action and habit.
“The moral virtues are engendered in us neither by nor contrary to nature; we are constituted by nature to receive them, but their full development in us is due to habit.”

27. Example: Music!
Are some people born with a gift for musical instruments?
Does this mean they will be good with no work whatsoever?
If someone is not born with a gift for a musical instrument, how might they become good?
How do we therefore develop musical skill?

28. Habituation Being virtuous is an art, like learning an instrument.
We learn by doing and developing natural dispositions.
E.g. Kindness / fairness – whilst we may be born with dispositions towards these emotions it does not mean we are always automatically kind or fair.
We develop them through habituation, through practice.
Note: Habituation is not the same as ‘habit’ – it’s not doing something mindlessly. It’s requires repetition and mental effort.

29. Homework Read through the skill analogy section on page 311:
Why are virtues like skills according to Aristotle?
What phases must we pass through when developing a skill or virtue?
Why is autonomy (independence) important to achieving Eudaimonia?
“The virtues we acquire by first exercising them, just as happens in the arts. For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them: people become builders by building and instrumentalists by playing instruments. Similarly we becomes just by performing just acts… brave by performing brave ones.”

30. Summary – What should you now know?
The idea of function (ergon), characteristic activity and virtue (arete).
The function argument.
The different types of virtue.
How we distinguish between virtues and vices.
Virtues as character dispositions.
Developing virtues through habituation.

31. Lesson Objective
To understand what is meant by the terms ergon (function), arête (virtue) and characteristic activity according to Aristotle.
To examine the function argument given by Aristotle and how he thinks this will allow us to achieve Eudaimonia.
To look at virtues in more detail, including how we acquire and develop them.