1. II. The Making of an Arab Empire
A. War, Conquest, and Tolerance
1. From the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus River
- rapid spread
2. Battle of Talas, 751 (defeated Chinese)
3. Economic drive and spreading the faith
4. Dhimmis – people of the book, very tolerant of
5. Jizya – non believers tax
II. The Making of an Arab Empire
A. War, Conquest, and Tolerance
1. From the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus River: Muslim armies spread rapidly out of the Arabian Peninsula, conquering Spain and invading France in the west and reaching the Indus River in the east. Arabs invaded and conquered wealthy Egypt. The Persian Sassanid Empire quickly fell and the Arabs picked off much Byzantine territory.
2. Battle of Talas, 751: In 751, the Islamic forces defeated the Chinese in central Asia at the Battle of Talas. This allowed the Turkic people to become a widespread Islamic culture and checked the westward spread of China.
3. Economic drive and spreading the faith: While the Muslims were eager to spread their faith, there were also very worldly economic interests in building the empire. Rich trade routes and productive farmlands increased the wealth of the new and expanding empire.
4. Dhimmis and the Jizya: If conversion was encouraged, the empire respected Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as fellow “people of the book.” These groups were granted the special status of Dhimmi and were required to pay a tax, the Jizya, in lieu of military service (yet many Dhimmi did serve in the military). This tolerance allowed these faiths to continue to be practiced.

3. II. The Making of an Arab Empire
B. Divisions and Controversies
1. First Four Caliphs (632–661) and civil war
- First leaders after death were all friends of prophet
2. Sunni versus Shia
- Who should rule the Umma?
- Sunni: leader should be a learned community member
- Shia: leader should be a direct descendent of Muhammad
3. Umayyad (661–750): Damascus, new capital
II. The Making of an Arab Empire
C. Divisions and Controversies
1. First Four Caliphs (632–661) and civil war: After the death of the prophet, disputes arose over who should lead the community. The first leaders were all companions of the prophet. The first caliph had to put down political revolts and new prophets and the third and fourth caliphs were assassinated. Thus, within decades of Muhammad's death, civil war threatened to destroy the unity he built.
2. Sunni versus Shia: Initially a political dispute over who should rule the Umma, the Sunni-Shia controversy still divides the Islamic world. Shia argue that the leader should come from a direct descendent of Muhammad, while the Sunnis hold that a learned member of the community should lead. As there was much persecution of the Shia and several of their leaders were killed, they developed the ideology of an oppressed minority and came to hold mystical ideas such as the belief that an assassinated leader had gone into hiding and would return to save the community some day. Such messianic beliefs and other rituals developed into a distinct Shia culture.
3. Umayyad (661–750): Damascus: This dynasty, with its capital not in Medina but in the old Roman and Byzantine city of Damascus, provided unity but soon faced a series of revolts.
4. Abbasid (750–1258): Baghdad: The Abbasids with their capital in the ancient Mesopotamian city of Baghdad, overthrew the Ummayyads but soon faced many revolts themselves before finally falling to the Mongols in 1258.
5. Post–ninth-century sultantes: A number of smaller states run by sultans broke away from Baghdad’s central authority after the mid-ninth century.
6. Interpreting and practicing Sharia: In deciding how Muslims should live, there was a movement to use Sharia law to structure all aspects of society. Thus a number of schools developed to interpret and administer the law.
7. Sufi: These mystics did not believe that it was necessary to follow the letter of the law. Rather through meditation or ritual, one could have a close spiritual contact with the Divine. Sufis often described their relationship with the Divine as a form of intoxication or overwhelming love.

4. II. The Making of an Arab Empire
Abbasid (750–1258): Baghdad, moved capital after overthrowing Ummayyads
Interpreting and practicing Sharia
Sufi culture: Mystics
- did not believe it necessary to follow sharia law
- believed through meditation/ritual they could have a close spiritual contact with the Divine
4. Abbasid (750–1258): Baghdad: The Abbasids with their capital in the ancient Mesopotamian city of Baghdad, overthrew the Ummayyads but soon faced many revolts themselves before finally falling to the Mongols in 1258.
5. Post–ninth-century sultantes: A number of smaller states run by sultans broke away from Baghdad’s central authority after the mid-ninth century.
6. Interpreting and practicing Sharia: In deciding how Muslims should live, there was a movement to use Sharia law to structure all aspects of society. Thus a number of schools developed to interpret and administer the law.
7. Sufi: These mystics did not believe that it was necessary to follow the letter of the law. Rather through meditation or ritual, one could have a close spiritual contact with the Divine. Sufis often described their relationship with the Divine as a form of intoxication or overwhelming love.

5. II. The Making of an Arab Empire
C. Women and Men in Early Islam
1. Women in the Quran, Hadith, and Sharia
- Muhammad created rules to protect women and give some control over their property and right to divorce
- Believed women who were devout and had good morals would receive Allah’s blessing just as men
2. Restrictions for elite women in the golden age
- Increased restrictions after Muhammad’s death
- Veiling, sequestering, submission to men
II. The Making of an Arab Empire
D. Women and Men in Early Islam
1. Women in the Quran, Hadith, and Sharia: During the time of the revelations, Muhammad created rules that protected women and gave them some control over their property and right to divorce. The famous passage that allowed Muslim men to have up to four wives also states that they must all be cared for equally. Spiritually, women who were devout and had good morals would receive Allah’s blessing just as men would. The revelations also contained some restrictions.
2. Restrictions for elite women in the golden age: When the Arab empires were established after the prophet’s death, there were increased restrictions on elite women. Many of these restrictions, such as veiling and sequestering, were in keeping with earlier pre-Islamic practices in this part of the world, and most were difficult and impractical to apply to lower class women.