1. Lecture 3 Repetition
The rather open objectives of the UNFCCC were transposed into more detailed requirements in the Kyoto Protocol 1998 and later – still on-going - amendments. This Protocol introduces the three ”Kyoto Mechanisms”, accompanied by numeric targets.
Secretariat of the UNFCCC: Martin-Luther-King- Straße 8, Bonn, Germany

2. Check your knowledge! What is a COP? - and the corresponding CMP?
How are Party countries classified?
How does a COP function?
What is the relationship between the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol?
Convention: 197 countries have ratified (206 States, UN)
Protocol: There are 192 Parties (191 States and 1 regional economic integration organization).
What instruments were included in the Protocol?
What is the status of the IPCC?

3. Economization of emissions units
The central feature of the Protocol is its requirement that countries limit or reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Emission reductions took on economic value.
As available, practical tools, the Kyoto Mechanisms, were developed and proposed.
In the background the liability principle (polluter pays –principle): external costs shall be borne by the “polluter”.

4. The three mitigation mechanisms
All-over objective: carbon-free development
Emissions trading (ET), Protocol Art.17
Joint implementation (JI), Art. 6
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Art. 12
Under Carbon trading, a country is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries. The country exceeding its quota is thus able to stich to the determined target.

5. Another mechanism
A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities such as reforestation
This recent mechanism focused on the creation of new sinks, in balance with transformed modes of land-use, especially forestry
This instrument (LULUCF), also adopted in dedveloped by the EU, will be presented in a separate lecture (20th Nov.)

6. Differences of the Mechanisms
Summary:
ET urges pressure on reductions of emissions
One has to cut down his emissions if emissions rights are not available
CDM and JI turn emissions into tradeable and transferable units – to be used in the allocation scheme of ”home installations”
One has not to cut emissions down at home, it can be done in a more ecomical way in another state

7. ET (International, Protocol)- carbon trading /”cap and trade”
Allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted (by international quota) them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. – not companies!
The over-capacity is determined in emissions units (“rights”), and units are transferable as any document of economic value: "carbon market“: carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas. Carbon is tracked and traded like any other commodity.

8. ET-units tradeable
Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting or reducing emissions.
The targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions, or “assigned amounts,” over the commitment period. The allowed emissions are divided into “assigned amount units” (AAUs).

9. Int. ET supports regional regimes
ET has been largely used in different modes and for different purposes. Therefore differences occur between the Kyoto-based and the domestic or regional emissions trading schemes
For CO2 emissions, the Protocol provides that emissions trading schemes may be established as climate policy instruments at the national level and the regional level (e.g. EU). Under such schemes, governments set emissions obligations to be reached by the participating entities.
Upcoming lecture: The emissions trading scheme of the EU (13th Nov.)

10. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Art. 12
allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.

11. CDM – investment scheme!
This mechanism is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs.
A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy- efficient boilers.
The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized (=developed) countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets.

12. CDM cont.
The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and issuance process designed to ensure real, measurable and verifiable emission reductions that are additional to what would have occurred without the project.
The mechanism is overseen by the CDM Executive Board, answerable ultimately to the countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol.

13. CDM numbers
The CDM has already registered more than 1,650 projects and is anticipated to produce CERs amounting to more than 2.9 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, 2008–2012, by the end 2016 registered projects were altogether 3500. 
During the last reporting period, a total of
149,943,790 CERs were issued.

14. Joint implementation
The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party.

15. Profit of JI?
Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.
Admissible credits are called ERUs. One ERU is equal to one tonne CO2. The host Party may use the ERUs to be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.

16. JI cont. /Track I)
Host states have two tracks available, one with an authorized national control of guidelines (Track I) , the other less controlled but supervised by the UNFCCC (Track II). Advanced countries eligible for Track I must have a national system in place to estimate emissions and removals by sinks; submit an annual inventory to estimate GHG emissions; and have accurate accounting of their assigned amount and submissions of information. – Then they are rather free from international control. - National appointed authorities!
As with the CDM, all emission reductions must be real, measurable, verifiable and additional to what would have occurred without the project.

17. Criteria for JI Projects
The Guidelines for the implementation of Article 6 require that a Party involved inform the UNFCCC Secretariat of its national guidelines and procedures for approving projects, including the consideration of stakeholders’ comments, as well as monitoring and verification. (Track I)
Host countries identify high-priority areas, such as renewable energy, district heating, landfill gas, and greening of public transport. In some cases, the annual minimum of emissions reductions is set as criteria for approval of a project.

18. Summary of terms
1. An “emission reduction unit” or “ERU” is a unit issued pursuant to the relevant provisions in these modalities for the accounting of assigned amounts and is equal to one metric tonne of CO2 equivalent, calculated using global warming potentials..
2. A “certified emission reduction” or “CER” is a unit issued pursuant to Article 12 and requirements thereunder, … is equal to one metric tonne of CO2 equivalent, calculated using global warming potentials…
3. An “assigned amount unit” or “AAU” is a unit issued pursuant to the relevant provisions in these modalities for the accounting of assigned amounts and is equal to one metric tonne of CO2 equivalent,
4. A “removal unit” or “RMU” is a unit issued pursuant to the relevant provisions in these modalities for the accounting of assigned amounts and is equal to one metric tonne of CO2 equivalent, calculated using global warming potentials…

19. Further development of the UNFCCC and the Protocol (some)
Marrakesh Accords 2001: rules about mechanisms and procedures; lead to the ratification of the Protocol
(Entry into force of the Protocol: 2005)
4th Report of the IPCC 2007: hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels
Basis for the Bali COP and CMP

20. Bali Road Map 2007 Bali Climate Change Conference
TheBali Road Map consists of a number of forward-looking decisions that represent the various tracks that are essential to reaching a secure climate future.
Includes the Bali Action Plan: charts the course for a new negotiating process designed to tackle climate change, with the aim of completion by 2009
Includes a number of other decisions and resolutions

21. The two tracks of the Roadmap
The Bali Road Map included two "tracks" of negotiations:
1. The Convention track: These negotiations centred around the Bali Action Plan, which had four main "building blocks" - mitigation, adaptation, technology and financing, as well as a shared vision for long- term cooperative action including a long-term global goal for emission reductions.
2. The Kyoto Protocol track: This deals with the commitments for the industrialised countries (Annex I Parties) under the Kyoto Protocol for the period beyond 2012 when the first period of emission reduction commitments ( ) expires. In particular, talks were focused upon emission reduction targets and means of implementation.

22. Bali: NAMA, NAP, REDD Two Tracks:
Long-term Cooperative Action (the AWG-LCA) and the track on the Kyoto Protocol (the AWG- KP). Differences, but related.
The broader Bali Action Plan track considered how to significantly upscale all climate policy issues, including nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) and national adaptation programmes (NAPs) in developing countries. Third topic: how to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation in developing countries (REDD).

23. The Cancún Agreement (UNFCCC, mitigation), 2010
Central to the Cancun Agreements adopted by Parties in is the decision to hold the increase in the global average temperature below 2 °C, or below 1.5 °C, above pre-industrial levels. More than 90 Parties made conditional and unconditional pledges to reduce emissions by 2020 under the Cancún Agreements.
For developed countries, these pledges encompass quantified economy-wide emission reduction targets under the Convention for all developed countries, and quantified emission limitation or reduction commitments under the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol by developed countries. (Later Doha Amendment

24. Doha COP 2012 The COP of Doha (Amendment of Protocol)
Quantified emission limitation or reduction commitment (QELRC) set for all developed Party states. The commitments were set - more stringent - for the period 2013–2020 (as percentage of base year).
E.g. the EU should come down from former 92 to 80 percent!
The QELRCs for the European Union and its member States for this period Protocol are based on the understanding that these will be fulfilled jointly with the European Union and its member States.

26. The Paris Agreement 2015, Update of the UNFCCC
…aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, by i.a.:
Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;
Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production;

27. Keep global warming below 2°C
Global warming has to be limited to below 2°C compared to the average temperature in pre- industrial times to prevent the most severe impacts of climate change and possibly catastrophic changes in the global environment.
To achieve this, the world must stop the growth in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 and reduce them by 60% by 2050 compared with 2010.
The latest scientific evidence suggests that, if little or no action is taken to reduce global emissions, by the end of this century global warming is likely to exceed the 2°C target and could be as much as 5°C.

28. Developed states, cf. UNFCCC 4
Developed country Parties shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties with respect to both mitigation and adaptation in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention. (Art. 9)
Developed country Parties shall biennially communicate indicative quantitative and qualitative information related to paragraphs 1 and 3 of this Article, as applicable, including, as available, projected levels of public financial resources to be provided to developing country Parties.

29. Developing countries
Support shall be provided to developing country Parties for the implementation of this Article, in accordance with Articles 9, 10 and 11, recognizing that enhanced support for developing country Parties will allow for higher ambition in their actions.
The least developed countries and small island developing States may prepare and communicate strategies, plans and actions for low greenhouse gas emissions development reflecting their special circumstances.

30. The Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts
Parties should enhance understanding, action and support, including through the Warsaw International Mechanism, as appropriate, on a cooperative and facilitative basis with respect to loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change. (Art. 8)
Some areas of cooperation and enhancement:
Early warning systems;
Emergency preparedness;
Slow onset events;
Events that may involve irreversible and permanent loss and damage;

31. Rapid actions/ Paris Agreement
In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal,. Parties aim
to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country Parties,
to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with best available science, so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century, on the basis of equity, and in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty. (4 Art.)
Long-term goal: sinks and reservoir shall exceed the amount of emissions!!