1. 385L17

2. BRONZE AGE
BCE
Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations
DARK AGE
BCE
economic collapse
migration into Aegean
ARCHAIC PERIOD
BCE
trade and economic renewal
literacy
rise of polis
Presocratic speculation
CLASSICAL PERIOD
BCE
Athenian supremacy
scientific advances: logic, astronomy, medicine, physics, mathematics, biology…
research institutes (Academy, Lyceum)
HELLENISTIC PERIOD
BCE
Alexander the Great
syncretism
research libraries (Alexandria, Pergamon)
ROMAN REPUBLIC
BCE
Roman conquest of Greece (150)
expansion of Empire
ROMAN EMPIRE
31 BCE — 476 CE
collapse of Republic
imperial rule
religious cults
“fall” of Rome

3. Aristotelian (384-322 BCE) Contributions
• dissection (autopsia) of animals • comparative anatomy of animals • extensive biological writings • teleological approach : function determines form • cardiocentric view of consciousness • emphasis on pneumatic view of physiology • tradition of scientific research in Peripetatic School

4. Alexandrian Museum and Library
• Alexandria founded 331 BCE • state patronage of arts and sciences under Ptolemaic rulers • Museum and Library founded early 3rd century BCE • competition between Alexandria and Pergamum • estimates range from 40, ,000 scrolls • Museum as research institute: physics, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, zoology, medicine • ban on dissection of human cadavers lifted • likelihood of vivisection on condemned criminals • ban reinstated by end of 3rd century BCE • library partially destroyed 48 BCE; also 270s CE

5. Alexandrian Medical Research
• Praxagoras, Herophilus, Erasistratus • shift from study of disease to study of health (hygieia) • development of diagnostic procedures (semiology) • human dissection (autopsia) to uncover anatomical structures • anatomical discoveries drive physiological theory • cross-influence of theoretical frameworks

6. Praxagoras ( BCE)
• cardiocentrism (cf. Aristotle) • distinction between veins (blood) and arteries (pneuma) • tendons and nerves (neura) arise from terminus of arteries • development of complex humoral pathology: (a) balance/imbalance among 11 distinct humors (b) excess  sepsis (c) flow of pneuma obstructed by phlegm • increased emphasis on phlebotomy to reduce plethora

7.
Praxagoras
(*) Physics, Anatomy, On Diseases, On Differences in Acute Diseases, On Concurrent Signs, On Supervening Signs, Ways of Therapy, Causes, Affections and Therapies
Herophilos
(*) On Anatomy, On Pulses, Midwifery, Against Common Opinions, Regimen, On the Eyes, Hippokratic Exegesis
Erasistratos
(*) On General Principles of Physiology, Fevers, Expectoration of Blood, Paralysis, Podagra, The Abdominal Cavity, Divisions

8. Herophilos ( BCE)
• rejection of cardiocentrism • focus on anatomically-based definition of health (hygieia) • identification of (a) nerves (neura) — pneuma psykhikon (b) arteries — pneuma zôtikon (c) veins — blood • source of neura traced to spinal cord and cerebellum (a) description of optic, oculomotor, trigeminal, facial, acoustic, hypoglossal nerves (b) description of cerebral ventricles

9. Herophilos (335-280 BCE) motor (proairêtika)
(hard tendons and ligaments)
neura
sensory (aisthêtika)
(hollow conduits for pneuma)

10. Herophilos ( BCE)
• veins (thin) and arteries (thick) distinguished by thickness of membrane (a) veins distribute nutrition (blood) (b) arteries distribute pneuma zôtikon (c) pneuma drawn by expansion of arteries during cardiac systole (d) identification of pulse (sphygmos) as diagnostic tool (e) use of water-clock to time beats

11. Sphygmatology AGE RHYTHM METRE Childhood uu pyrrhic Adolescence uu—
trochee
Adulthood ——
spondee
Senescence u—
iamb

13. DIAGNOSTIC CATEGORIES OF A SINGLE PULSE

14. Erasistratos ( BCE)
• rejection of cardiocentrism • digestion = mechanical grinding • rejection of refrigerant function of pneuma (stomach, lungs, brain) • histological triplokia : plaiting of neura (sensation), arteries (movement), veins (nutrition) together • discovery of unidirectional cardiac valves (a) right ventricular systole  blood through veins (b) left ventricular systole  pneuma through arteries

15. Erasistratos ( BCE)
• rejection of cardiocentrism • digestion = mechanical grinding • histological triplokia : plaiting of neura (sensation), arteries (movement), veins (nutrition) together • discovery of unidirectional cardiac valves (a) right ventricular systole  blood through veins (b) left ventricular systole  pneuma through arteries

16. Erasistratos (304-250 BCE) • dissection of brain
(a) investigation of meninges
(b) investigation of ventricles
(c) distinction of cerebrum and cerebellum
(d) cerebral systole moves pneuma through hollow
neura

17. Erasistratos ( BCE)
• series of vacuums (lungs, cardiac and arterial systole and
diastole, diaphorêsis) draw pneuma through body
• injection of pneuma into muscle causes swelling, empowers
movement
• venous and arterial vessels terminate in valved capillaries with openings (anastomôses)

18. paremptôsis
• principle of movement along gradients  extravenous fluid transfer (paremptôsis) • overeating  plethora  pressure-driven leakage (paremptôsis) of blood into artery • blood drawn into artery from vein due to vacuum created by escape of pneuma from artery • two categories of diseases: (a) paremptôsis  obstruction of arterial pneuma  fever and inflammation (empyema) (b) paremptôsis  obstruction of neural pneuma  numbness and paralysis • treatment aims to reduce fluid excess through purgatives and allopathic diet