1. Emotional Development
Learning when and how to express emotions is the preeminent psychosocial accomplishment between ages 2 and 6.
emotional regulation: ability to control when and how emotions are expressed

2. The Marshmallow Experiment

3. Initiative Versus Guilt
Guilt makes child afraid to try new activities.
If parents dismiss child’s emotional expressions, children may not learn emotional regulation.

4. * self-esteem
self-concept
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation

5. Play
Play:
most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake
universal
changes between ages 2 and 6

6. Peers and Parents Young children play best with peers
Provide practice in:
Emotional regulation
Empathy
Social Understanding

7. Cultural Differences in Play
Play varies by culture, gender, and age.
Play is an ideal means for children to learn whatever social skills are required in the social context.
Chinese children fly kites.
Alaskan natives tell dreams and stories.
Lapp children pretend to be reindeer.

8. Five Kinds of Play Solitary play Parallel play Associative play
Child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby.
Onlooker play
Child watches other children play.
Parallel play
Children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together.
Associative play
Children interact, observing each other and sharing material, but not mutual and reciprocal.
Cooperative play
Children play together, creating and elaborating a joint activity or taking turns.

9. Rough-and-Tumble Play
rough-and-tumble play: mimics aggression through:
wrestling
chasing
hitting
no intent to harm

10. Challenges for Parents
Parents differ a great deal in what they believe about children and how they should act toward them.
Tend to follow the child-rearing patterns of their own parents.
Need to decide on a parenting style.

11. Parenting Styles Expressions of warmth Strategies for discipline
very affectionate or cold and critical
Strategies for discipline
how they explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish
Communication
listen patiently; others demand silence
Expectations for maturity
parents vary in standards for responsibility and self-control

12. Three Patterns of Parenting
Authoritarian: Characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.
Permissive: Characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.
Authoritative: Parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible.

13. Neglectful/Uninvolved Parenting
Fourth style of parenting
Sometimes mistaken for permissive- but in contract this type of parenting is very careless.
These parents are strikingly unaware in what their child is doing.

14. Cultural Variations
Chinese, Caribbean, and African American parents are often stricter.
Japanese mothers tend to use reasoning, empathy and expressions of disappointment.
Specific discipline methods and family rules are less important then:
parental warmth
support
concern

15. Children, Parents, and the New Media
What do children see?
Good guys as violent as bad guys
their violence depicted as justified
Good guys are male and White
except when all characters are Black or Latino
Females of all ethnic groups are usually depicted as:
Victims or girlfriends

16. Moral Development
Children develop increasingly complex moral values, judgments, and behaviors.
In early childhood, children try to:
please their parents.
avoid punishment.
make friends.
exclude enemies.
The emotional development and the theory of mind make morality possible.

17. Moral Development
empathy: ability to understand emotions and concerns of another person
antipathy: feelings of dislike or even hatred for another
antisocial behavior: feelings and actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another

18. Physical Punishment
Young children are slapped, spanked, or beaten more often than children over age 6 or under age 2.
Many parents remember being spanked themselves and think spanking works well.
Some researchers agree; some do not.

19. psychological control: disciplinary technique involving threatening to withdraw love and support
relies on child’s feelings of guilt and gratitude to parents
time-out: disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people for a specified time
Social punishment

20. Becoming Boys and Girls
Identity as male or female important feature of a child’s self-concept.
first question asked about a newborn is “Boy or girl?”
Children become more aware of gender every year.
parents select gender-distinct:
clothes
blankets
diapers
pacifiers, etc.

21. Sex and Gender
sex differences: biological differences between males and females
organs
hormones
body type
gender differences: differences in the roles and behavior of males and females prescribed by the culture

22. Psychoanalytic Theory
phallic stage: Freud’s third stage of development; period from ages 3-6
penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
Oedipus complex: unconscious desire of young boys to replace their father and win mother’s exclusive love
superego: judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents

23. Electra complex: unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win father’s exclusive love
identification: attempt to defend one’s self-concept by taking on behaviors and attitudes of someone else; specifically the same-sex parent

24. Behaviorism
Belief that all roles are learned and therefore result from nurture, not nature.
Gender distinctions are the product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment.

25. Cognitive Theory
gender schema: cognitive concept or general belief based on one’s experiences

26. Sociocultural Theory
androgyny: balance within a person of traditionally male and female psychological characteristics

27. Gender and Destiny
Since human behavior is plastic, what gender patterns should children learn?
Answers vary among developmentalists, mothers, fathers, and cultures.
If children respond to their own inclinations, some might choose behavior, express emotions, and develop talents that are taboo, even punished in certain cultures.