1. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CELLS AND THE EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CELLS AND THE EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT

2. Extracellular environment

3. Body Fluids
Intracellular compartment (inside cells) – contains 67% of our water
Extracellular compartment (outside cells) contains 33% of our water Of this:
20% is in blood plasma.
80% makes up interstitial fluid.

4. A Closer Look at the Extracellular Matrix
Ground substance is like a gel composed of glycoproteins and proteoglycans (mostly polysaccharide

5. Cell membranes are semi-permeable
SOME STUFF PASSES THROUGH, BUT NOT OTHERS
What can pass through depends on the size of the molecule and its chemical properties
-- Generally not permeable to proteins, nucleic acids, or other large molecules
-- Generally permeable to ions, nutrients, and wastes.
AKA
“SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE”

6. Categories of Membrane Transport
Noncarrier-mediated (passive)
Simple diffusion of lipid-soluble molecules
Simple diffusion of ions through nonspecific channels
Simple diffusion of water (osmosis)
Carrier-mediated
Facilitated diffusion (passive)
Active transport (active)

7. PASSIVE VERSUS ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Passive transport: Molecules move from higher to lower concentration without using metabolic energy, with or w/o a membrane.
Active transport: Molecules move from lower to higher concentration using ATP and specific carrier pumps.

8. Three types of passive transport
1 – simple diffusion – Nonpolar molecules, ions, water,
go through the membrane.
2 – facilitated diffusion through a channel protein. E.g. ions, water through aquaporin channels.
3 – facilitated diffusion through a carrier protein e.g. small organic molecules such as glucose.

9. Review of terminology
Solvent – liquid into which molecules are dissolved. Solute – molecules that are added to the solvent Solution – solute + solvent
Concentration = the amount of solute in a specific amt. of liquid.

10. Net Diffusion means that most of the molecules will move in the direction of lower concentration until an equilibrium state is reached.
Solution: consists of a solvent (water) and a solute (molecules dissolved in water)
Molecules in a solution are in a constant state of motion.
If there is a concentration difference between two regions, random motion will establish equilibrium via diffusion.
Obeys the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics – diffusion increases entropy

11. Fig 6.4 DIFFUSION THROUGH A DIALYSIS
MEMBRANE: Proteins (purple) are too big to fit through. Glucose (green) is small enough
to fit through, but is at an equil-
ibrium, so there is no “net” movement.
Small ions and molecules (yellow) can fit through and travel down their concentration gradient

12. Review of what can/cannot go through
Small or nonpolar molecules pass easily. E.g. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroid hormones, water
Larger polar molecules cannot pass through the membrane by simple diffusion but need special carrier proteins. E.g. glucose
Charged inorganic ions cannot pass through the membrane, but need ion channels. E.g. Na+, K+ (see upcoming slide)

13. Fig. 6.5: Gas exchange.

14. Ions pass through membrane channels

15. What factors influence the rate of diffusion?
Magnitude of concentration difference – the driving force for diffusion
Permeability of the membrane to the molecules
Temperature of the solution; higher temperature increases the rate
Surface area of the membrane; increased by microvilli

16. Water moves toward the side with less water (high solute side)
Diffusion of water
Aquaporins
Water moves toward the side with less water (high solute side)
Membrane must be impermeable to solute
Solutes that cannot cross and permit osmosis are called osmotically active
Osmosis

17. The Effect of Osmosis
Water will move into the bag, where there is 360 g/L of sucrose, until
an equal concentration of sucrose (270 g/L) is achieved on both sides of the membrane.

18. Osmotic pressure – the force required to stop osmosis.
Can be used to describe the osmotic ‘pull’ of a solution.
Pure water has an osmotic pressure of zero
FIG. 6.9 The force required to stop osmosis is twice as great for a solution of 360 g/L as for a solution of 180 g/L

19. Moles and Molarity 1 mole is 6.02 X 1023 things
There are 6.02 X 1023 particles in 1 mole.
The weight of a mole is the molecular weight of a substance.
EXAMPLES:
glucose (MW = 180); 1 mole of glucose is 180g
NaCl (MW = 58.5); 1 mole of NaCl is 58.5g
Sucrose = 342 g ; 1 mole of sucrose is 342 g
A 1 Molar solution, 1 M, is the molecular weight of a substance in 1 Liter of water.
Click here for an intro to moles

20. “Molarity” – # moles/1 Liter of solution
Molarity vs. Molality
“Molarity” – # moles/1 Liter of solution
FIG. 6.10
“Molality” – # moles/1 kg of solvent
With Molality, we always use the same amount of water (1 kg or 1 L); With Molarity, the amount of water used will differ when used to dissolve solutes of different Molecular weights.

21. Osmolality is the total molality of a solution when you combine all of the molecules within it.
EXAMPLE: A 360 g (2 m) glucose solution and a 180 g glucose (1m) g fructose (1m) solution would have the same osmolality.
-These are both 2 Osm solutions.
Osmolality

22. Fig. 6.12 – Effect of Ionization on Osmotic Pressure
NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl- in water and must be counted as separate particles. NaCl  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) A 1m NaCl solution would actually be a 2 Osm solution.
If the membrane is not permeable to glucose, then, water will move by osmosis into the NaCl solution until the osmolality equals 1.5 on both sides of the membrane.

23. Osmolality can be measured by freezing point depression
Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius
For every osmolal, water freezes at 1.86
degrees lower
EXAMPLE 1:
A 1.0 m glucose solution freezes at degrees Celsius
EXAMPLE 2:
Plasma freezes at degrees Celsius, therefore plasma is 0.3
Osm.

24. Tonicity
Tonicity is the effect of solute concentration on the osmotic movement of water. Isotonic – same solute on both sides. Hypotonic – a lower solute concentration, lower osmotic pressure Hypertonic – has a greater osmotic pressure
Plasma has the same osmolality as a 0.3m glucose or a 0.15m NaCl solution.
These solutions are considered isosmotic to plasma.
Made as 0.9g NaCl/100mL water – normal saline
5% dextrose – 5g glucose/100 mL water
crenation

25. Tonicity, cont
Tonicity takes into account the permeability of the membrane to the solutes. If the solutes can cross the membrane, the tonicity will change.
If you place RBCs in a 0.3m solution of urea, the tonicity will not be isotonic. Urea can cross into the RBCs and draw water with it.
These cells will eventually burst.
Therefore, 0.3 m urea is isoosmotic but not isotonic isosmotic – solutions that have the same osmolality

26. Figure 6.14 - Homeostasis of plasma concentration
Osmoreceptors (neurons) in the hypothalamus lose
water due to osmosis when a person is dehydrated. The neurons shrink, causing a mech- anical stiumulation of the receptor, which triggers:
Thirst
Decreased excretion of water in urine due to ADH secretion
Constant osmolality must be maintained, or neurons will be damaged.
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect increases in osmolality (due to dehydration). This triggers:
Thirst
Decreased excretion of water in urine
With a lower plasma osmolality, osmoreceptors are not stimulated, so more water is excreted in urine

27. Carrier-Mediated Transport.

28. Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose
no ATP used
Net movement from high to low
Requires specific carrier proteins

29. INSERTION OF CARRIER PROTEINS INTO PLASMA MEMBRANE
Unstimulated – carriers located in vesicles
Stimulated – carriers fuse with plasma membrane
Isoforms:
GLUT1 – CNS
GLUT2 – pancreatic beta cells & hepatocytes
GLUT3 – neurons
GLUT4 – adipose tissue & skeletal muscles

30. Active Transport Review
Low concentration to high concentration
ATP required
The transport protein (called a pump) is also an ATPase (Hydrolyzes ATP)
Pump is activated by phosphorylation using a Pi from ATP.

31. The Ca2+ Pump
Located on all cells and in the ER of striated muscle cells Removes Ca2+ from the cytoplasm
Fig An Active Transport Pump

32. Na+/K+ Pump Found in all body cells
ATPase enzyme pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell
Serves three functions:
Provides energy for coupled transport of other molecules
Produces electrochemical impulses in neuron and muscle cells
Maintains osmolality

33. Steps of the Na+/K+ pump
3 Na+ bind to pump.
ATPase hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and Pi which blocks both openings
ADP release causes a shape change that allows 3 Na+ to exit pump to outside cell
2K+ enter carrier from the outside, releasing the Pi
5) Pump returns to original shape and releases 2K+ to the inside

34. Secondary Active (Coupled) Transport
The Na+ gradient created by the pump results in a downhill flow of Na+ back into the cell, along with glucose
Co-transport (symport) – the other molecule is moved with sodium (import of glucose)
Countertransport (antiport) – the other molecule is moved in the opposite direction to Na+2 (extrusion of Ca+2 from cell)
Considered Active because it relies on the Na+2/K+ pump)

35. Transport Across Epithelial Membranes

36. Examples: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes
Junctional complexes provide a barrier between adjacent epithelial cells
Examples: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes

37. Many molecules at once Requires ATP May involve a receptor
Bulk Transport
Many molecules at once
Requires ATP
May involve a receptor
E.g. cholesterol and its transporter protein, which binds to the transporter receptor

38. Bulk Transport

39. The Membrane Potential

40. WHAT IS MEMBRANE POTENTIAL?
The cell is like a tiny battery with the positive pole outside and the negative pole inside
The uneven distribution of charges between the inside and the outside of the membrane = membrane potential.
Voltage is the measure of the potential difference
The potential of a typical battery is 1.5 Volts.

41. Membrane Potential (Potential Difference)
K+ accumulates at high concentrations in the cell because:
-The Na+/K+ pumps actively bring in K+.
-The membrane is very permeable to K+
-Negative (fixed) anions
inside the cell attract K+ from outside the cell.
FIXED ANIONS ARE PHOSPHATES AND PROTEINS.

42. … this does not mean they are “equal” … is hypothetical
Equilibrium Potential (E) is the potential that would prevent movement of that particular ion) if the membrane were only permeable to that ion
… this does not mean they are “equal”
… is hypothetical
Is different for each ion
Can be calculated by the Nernst Equation
Click here for a video on equilibrium potential
The EK is -90 mV for all cells (would prevent flow of K+)
The ENa is +66 mV for all cells (would prevent flow of Na+)

43. Equilibrium Potential of Potassium (EK)
The electrical attraction would pull K+ into the cell until it reaches a point where the concentration gradient drawing K+ out matches this pull in. -- K+ would reach an equilibrium, with more K+ inside than outside. -- Normal cells have 150mM K+ inside and 5mM K+ outside.
The EK is -90 mV for all cells (would prevent flow of K+)

44. Concentration of ions in the intracellular and extracellular fluids

45. Resting Membrane Potential =
Resting = Membrane potential of a cell not producing any impulses.
In most cells, the resting potential is between -65mV and -85mV.
Neurons are usually at −70mV.
Close to K+ equilibrium potential
When a neuron sends an impulse, it changes the permeability of Na+, driving the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for Na+.

46. Processes that influence the resting membrane potential

47. Cell Signaling

48. CELLS COMMUNICATE USING CHEMICAL SIGNALS

49. REGULATORY MOLECULES BIND TO RECEPTORS

50. Second Messengers – cAMP
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP) is a common second messenger.
Steps to activate
A signaling molecule binds to a receptor.
This activates an enzyme that produces cAMP from ATP.
cAMP activates other enzymes.
Cell activities change in response.

51. FIG G-Protein Cycle