1. Cognitive Factors in Learning and the PQ4R Method of Learning
6.3 & 6.4

2. At a Glance Cognitive Factors in Learning
Cognitive psychologists focus on the mental aspects of learning and are interested in what people or animals know, not just what they do.
Cognitive learning is based on the idea that people and animals can learn by thinking or by watching others.
Some techniques for behavioral modification are based on the ideas of operant conditioning and cognitive factors.

3. Latent Learning
One kind of cognitive learning is latent learning, which is learning that remains hidden until it is needed.
Most psychologists believe that much learning takes place without reinforcement.
A “Cognitive Map” is a mental picture. For example, because you are familiar with your school, you know the location of your locker, the main office, the cafeteria, the gym, and your psychology class. You’ve simply created this image on your own without any type of reinforcement.

4. Observational Learning
Observational learning is knowledge and skills acquired by observing and imitating others.
Modeling
Modeling is basically a kind of imitation.
Vicarious reinforcement is the ability to learn from the experiences of another.
Observational learning and modeling account for much human learning.
Albert Bandura’s research has shown that we acquire knowledge and skills by observing and imitating others.
The Effects of Media Violence
Television is a major source of informal observational learning.
Most health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression.
If a child watches two to four hours of TV a day, she or he will have seen 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time she or he has finished elementary school.

5. Game Violence Statistics

6. Joint statement by the APA and several medical associations
Media violence supplies models of aggressive “skills” which children may learn by watching. Media violence also provides viewers with aggressive scripts—that is, ideas about how to behave in situations like those they have observed.
Children who see a lot of violence are more likely to view violence as an effective and acceptable way of settling person al conflicts.
Viewing violence can lead to emotional desensitization toward violence in real life. It can decrease the likelihood that one will take action on behalf of a victim of violence.
Viewing violence may lead to real-life violence. Children exposed to violent programming at a young age have a higher tendency for violent and aggressive behavior later in life.

7. Behavior Modification
Classroom Discipline
Teachers are taught to pay attention to students when they are behaving appropriately and to ignore misbehavior that is not harmful to themselves or others.
Token Economics
People are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards that can be cashed in for treats, merchandise, or privileges.
Personal Contracts
A personal contract is a personal behavior modification technique.
It works by first identifying a behavior you want to change, setting a goal for a new behavior, and creating a system of rewards or punishments that encourage the new behavior.
Rubber band; shirt reward

8. Section four at a glance
The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work of educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson. Robinson believed that students will learn more when they take an active approach to learning.
The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review.

9. Preview and Question Preview Question
Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the material before you start to read.
Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing.
Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.
Question
You can create learning goals by writing questions about the chapter after you preview it.
One way to write questions is to read the headings or the first sentence of each paragraph and write a question about it.

10. Read and Recite Read Recite
Read the chapter with the goal of answering the questions you wrote.
As you read, jot down a few key words that will remind you of the answer.
Two columns, one with the question and one with the answers
Recite
After you have answered your questions, recite the answers out loud or silently to yourself.
You can recite alone or with a study group. Both are effective.
“Alphabet Song”

11. Recite and Review Reflect Review
Relate new information to old information.
Relate new information to events in your own life or to people you know.
Think of ways that you can see what you’re studying in yourself or others.
Review
Learning that occurs regularly and is distributed over time is distributed learning.
Learning that occurs all at one time is massed learning, or cramming.
Studying regularly will reduce the amount of time you need to study the night before a test.