1. How to Read A Scientific Paper
Notes
This power point can be broken down into multiple sessions or delivered as a whole.
It introduces the student to the importance of scientific literature.
It provides a frame work for the students to carry out background research using keywords to find relevant published papers by scientists .
It outlines a method that the student could use to read a scientific paper.

2. Primary Literature Secondary Literature
provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, or work
empirical studies: research where an experiment was performed or a direct observation was made
Scientific Paper
Secondary Literature
describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize primary sources
newspapers or popular magazines articles
Books
articles found in scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate someone else's original research
Observational means that the researcher does not choose which group a subject is part of – the experimenter observes the subjects as they are and does not manipulate the assignment
Experimental means that the researcher assigns subjects to an experimental or control group
Many ways to organize this information.
This is one way that makes sense to me.
Secondary literature is a summary of primary literature.
Narrative, Subject, or Journalistic Reviews -- subject to author bias
Systematic Review – a transparent, well-defined methodology is used to select and analyze a group of articles
Meta Analysis – similar to above but using statistical methods to combine results of studies
Primary literature reports the individual investigations/experiments.
Primary literature can be divided in two groups:
Observational in which the investigator does not control what exposures the subjects have.
Experimental in which the experimenter controls exposures that the subjects have.
Retrospective looks at previously collected data. May apply to case-control, cohort. It is possible to do retrospective analysis of data from an experiment (questionable practice).
Prospective data is collected moving forward in time.
Cross-sectional – usually applied to case-control (or cross-sectional) studies.
Data are collected at a point in time for a group of subjects.
Longitudinal - data is collected over time for a group of subjects
Blinding applies to experimental design:
1. the subject does not know whether he/she is in the treatment or the control group.
2. the experimenter who measures outcomes does not know which subjects are in which group.
1 only = Single blind
1 and 2 = Double blind
Cross over – subjects act as their own controls.
Usually there is a “wash out” period between phases.
Qualitative studies
Secondary literature – see above 2

3. What is a Scientific Paper?
It is a written and published report describing original research results.

4. Why read Scientific Articles/Papers?
Journal papers are current
Textbooks are often years out of date.
Journals are generally the most accessible means of obtaining the information that you need.
You can get a good explanation for your data and enough details to replicate what you read about.
To find out exactly what the latest developments are in a field.
To find out how a certain piece of research was done.

5. Why do scientists write research articles?
To try and convince their peers to accept their scientific claims: argumentative structure

6. CONSIST OF:
motive (why the study was done)
objective (what was investigated)
main conclusion (the outcome of the study)
data from their own research
references (to previous research and refuted counter-arguments)
one or more implications (which might be a new theory, a new research question, or the impact on society or the research community)
Each of these elements is usually found in a specific section of the research article.

7. The Typical “Anatomy” of a Paper
Title and authors
Abstract/summary
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices

8. Title and authors
Title is very descriptive (Summarizes the study and / or outcome).
Usually, the first author is the main researcher and the last author is the head of the department.
Example:
VEGF, a prosurvival factor, acts in concert with TGF-beta1 to induce endothelial cell apoptosis.
Ferrari G, Pintucci G, Seghezzi G, Hyman K, Galloway AC, Mignatti P.

9. Abstract Brief summary of each section of the paper
Should be clear and simple, as it is the first and sometimes the only part of the paper read.
Purpose for the study
Major findings of the study
Relationship between these findings and the field

16. 1. Introduction MAIN BODY
Presents background info for reader to understand why the findings of this paper are significant.
Authors explain:
context of the study, i.e. what other researchers have discovered, what was known before the study was done
why this study is important (the gap in knowledge)
what they are going to do.
Hypothesis being tested
Conclusions

17. The abstract & introduction should tell you whether it is worth reading in depth or only worth skimming.

18. How to Approach the Introduction
Take notes
Annotate
Draw
Define vocabulary

19. 2. Material and Methods
Should be detailed enough for another scientist to replicate the work (volumes, times, company material was purchased from etc.)
In reality, often compressed and you may need to look up another paper that is referenced for more detail.

20. Why it is good idea to read materials and methods?
To know how it was done in order to understand what it means
To find stimulating ideas and make connections between different areas
To adapt methodological approaches to our own experiments

21. 3. Results
Describes outcome of experiments that were done to answer the questions
Presented as graphs, diagrams and tables
Results are often simply stated with interpretation of them coming later in the discussion.
Figures and tables allow the reader to see the outcomes of the experiments for themselves

22. How to read the results
Read the text straight through, but as a figure is referred to, examine the figure.
Take notes, giving yourself a place to refer to about each figure.
With each experiment/figure you should be able to explain :
1) basic procedure
2) question it sought to answer
3) results
4) conclusion
*Look up methods you are not familiar with. Wikipedia is a quick reference, try youtube and JOVE too:

23. 4. Discussion States the main conclusion (claim)
Analyzes data and discusses how evidence supports this conclusion
Discusses implications for further research or for society. How is this work significant?
Findings are related to other findings in the field (contribute to knowledge, correct errors, etc.)

24. 5. Acknowledgements
Authors thank those who contributed to the research and identify who funded the study.
6. References
Lists all the source materials cited in the article
7. Appendices
Extra information (such as survey forms used)

26. Tips for Success
Spend a lot of time on each paper NOW, look up every detail that you are unsure of. Time you invest now will payoff in the long run.
Imagine yourself teaching the paper or figures to classmates. Teaching something to others is also another great way to learn.
Start by reading the abstract to make sure the paper is what you are looking for. If it is, then move on to the introduction.
Use other sources to help you understand info in the paper.
In the Results section, examine each figure and table. Read the labels for each figure and table and refer back to the methods if you’re unsure how the data was collected.
If you come across vocabulary and concepts you’re unfamiliar with, look up those ideas and words.
Read, look things up, re-read, etc.. BUT, if you find that you’re spending too much time looking up info and not making any progress, then this paper may not be for you.
Highlight, annotate, or take notes to keep track of info.