1. MEMORY

2. Memory
Memory: persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information.
Gives us our sense of self and connects us to past experiences.
Cognition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering information

4. Memory Process
Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory
Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost
Retrieval: Using stored information
ENCODING
Put into Memory
STORAGE
Maintain in Memory
RETRIEVAL
Recover from Memory

5. Types of Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory: refers to the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. All information is held here briefly (1/2 to 4 seconds)
Sensory Memories include both:
Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli. Memory only lasts for a few tenths of a second.
2. Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory for auditory stimuli. Sound memories can usually last up to 3 or 4 seconds.
Sensory memory is very hard to measure since it fades as we try to measure it.

6. Prospective and Retrospective Memory
Prospective Memory: remembering to do something in the future
Ex. I need to remember to get my husband an anniversary gift.
Retrospective Memory: remembering you already did something in the past
Ex. I already got my husband an anniversary gift

7. Flashbulb Memory
a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard.
Evidence has shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the memories can be forgotten.

8. Process of Encoding: 2 Types
Effortful
Automatic

9. Automatic Processing (Type 1)
unconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards

10. Effortful Processing (Type 2)
Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing historical events/chronology, etc.
Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal: simple rote repetition of information in consciousness or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal: processing of information for meaning which can more easily help produce long term memories.

11. Memory Retrieval
Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.
Ex: fill in the blank, essay questions
Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.
Ex: multiple choice, matching
Reconstruction of Memories: Retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, loosing, or changing details to fit a mental representation

12. Amnesia Due to Damage to the Brain
Amnesia refers to the loss of memory.
Amnesiac patients typically have losses in explicit memory
Anterograde Amnesia: type of memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO FORM ANY NEW MEMORIES. Can’t remember anything that has occurred AFTER a traumatic head injury.
Retrograde Amnesia: type of memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO REMEMBER PAST EVENTS. May forget everything that happened BEFORE a traumatic head injury.

13. Infantile Amnesia
The forgetting of earlier events, specifically if the events happened before the age of three.
Biological Reasons:
Due to parts of the brain not being fully developed (mainly the hippocampus)
Also, myelination of brain pathways are not fully developed until after age two
Cognitive Reasons:
Young children don’t pay attention to the world around them in as much detail
The ability to encode sensory input is limited because language is still developing

14. Explaining the Serial Position Effect
Primacy Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when reviewing.
Recency Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY.
MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

15. Retrieval Cues: Reminders associated with information we are trying to retrieve
Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory.
Distributed practice: Spreading memorization out over several sessions (BEST)
Massed practice (AKA Cramming): One session
Mnemonic devices: ROY G BIV
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
The magic number is 7 + or – 2
In other words, the most we can hold in our STM is 5-9 items

16. Try to remember these numbers:

17. that you correctly memorized all 31 numbers?
How confident are you
that you correctly memorized all 31 numbers?

18. Now, try to remember these numbers:
1492
1776
1861
1914
1963
2001

19. Which was easier?
WHY?

20. Context Effects Memory Retrieval
Context-dependent memory: Being able to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in.
Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory:
State-Dependent Memory: information is most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.
Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

21. Forgetting Forgetting is a result of either: Encoding Failure
Not paying attention to certain stimuli (selective attention)
Storage Decay
Gradual fading of the physical memory trace
Neural connections are no longer there
Retrieval Failure from LTM
Relearning: A measure of retention of memory that assessed the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again
*if relearning takes as much time as the initial learning, the information has decayed

22. Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting is the idea that people unknowingly revise their history.
Ex: I broke up with her; she didn't break up with me.
What purpose might motivated forgetting serve?

23. Motivated Forgetting: A Freudian Concept
Repression: idea put forth by psychoanalytic theorists like Freud which states anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories can be banished from consciousness.
Ex: child abuse, rape, incest may be repressed and not be able to be actively recalled.

24. Interference
Interference: Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
Proactive(forward acting) Interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information (old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories)
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference: disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information (new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories)
Tip of the Tongue phenomenon: when we are certain we know something yet we are unable to recall it.
Relates to retrieval failure, usually priming or external cues will help you recall the information you are looking for.