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The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval

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1 The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval
What is Memory? The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval

2 The Processes of Memory
Encoding: getting information into the memory system Storage: the retaining of encoded information over time Retrieval: getting encoded information out of memory storage

3 Methods of Encoding Visual Encoding: Semantic Encoding:
Encoding information based on the images of the information Semantic Encoding: The encoding of meaning; Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall Acoustic Encoding: Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

4 Types of Memory (LTM) Episodic: Memory of a specific event that you were present for Semantic: Generalized knowledge of the world Procedural: How to do things/complicated sequence

5 Cerebellum Hippocampus Types of LTM Explicit W/ conscious recall
Implicit No conscious recall General Knowledge (semantic memory) Personal Events (episodic memory) Skills and Procedures (procedural memory) Conditioning (CC & OC)

6 Explicit vs. Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory Implicit Memory Used when you try to remember something and are consciously aware of doing so Can be episodic, semantic, and procedural memories Measure: Recognition Test unintentional recollection from prior experiences Usually procedural Measure: Fragment Completion Task Shown a list of word fragments and asked to complete the word Explicit & Implicit Memory Work Independently

7 Models of Memory Levels of Processing Model: what and how we remember are a function of how deeply information is processed or rehearsed and encoded when first experienced. 2 Types of Rehearsal: Maintenance: repeating an item over and over again; effective for remembering information for a short period of time Elaborative: thinking about how new material related to prior knowledge/ experience; effective and processed more deeply

8 Models of Memory Transfer-Appropriate Processing: most important memory determinant is how well the encoding process matches what is ultimately retrieved.

9 Models of Memory Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): suggests that new facts change our knowledge base by altering interconnected networks, facts, and associations. Neural Network: each unit of knowledge is ultimately connected to every other unit and the connections between units become stronger as they are experienced together more frequently

10 Models of Memory Information Processing Model: in order for information to become firmly embedded in memory, it must pass through three stages of mental processing. (1) Sensory Memory (2) Short-term Memory (3) Long-term Memory

11 Step 1: Sensory Memory The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system Iconic store: visual information; ½ second Echoic store: sound information; 2-3 seconds Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

12 Step 2: Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)
Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten Brown-Peterson Procedure: research states unless rehearsed materials stays in STM approximately 18 seconds Magic #7: Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed Visual codes tend to decay faster than acoustic

13 Step 3: Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Holds memories without conscious effort Dual Coding Theory: information is remembered better if both semantic and visual codes are used.

14 Figure 7A.2 A modified three-stage processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it. And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer the term working memory. © 2011 by Worth Publishers

15 Experiments on Recall Serial Position Effect: a tendency to remember both the first and last parts of list Primacy Effect (LTM): first part of a list Recency Effect (STM): last part of a list

16 Retrieving Memories Retrieval Cues: stimuli that helps retrieve information from LTM Allow people to recall things once forgotten and to recognize information stored in memory Recognition tasks are easier than recall tasks because they contain more retrieval cues

17 Which retrieval cues work best? Encoding Specificity
– When conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful – You are more likely to remember things if the conditions under which you recall them are similar to the conditions under which you originally learned them Transfer-appropriate Model

18 Retrieval Cues Context Dependence: When people remember more material while in a physical location that is similar to the one the material was originally learned State Dependence: People remember better when their psychological state is the same as it was when the information was encoded. Mood Congruence Effects: Information processing is facilitated if a person’s emotional state is similar to the information being processed

19 Retrieval from Semantic Memory
Semantic Networks: Concepts are represented in a sense network of associations Information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation (neural energy) Stronger associations are quickly retrieved Example: Thinking about concept A spreads neural activity to all other features/concepts associated with concept A. Help people: Gain knowledge about the world quickly and effortlessly Gain knowledge that allows them to infer or to compute other facts about the world

20 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

21 Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2. Said simply, the more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain.

22 Method of Savings Measures forgetting
Involves computing the difference between the number of repetitions needed to learn a list of items and the number of repetitions need to relearn it after some time has elapsed Difference=Savings Savings decline and forgetting increases as time passes

23 Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding Average percentage of information retained 20 mins 1 hr 8 hrs 24 2 days 6 31 Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test 100% Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

24 Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory Two types of interference key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

25 Two Types of Interference
Retroactive Interference Proactive Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information

26 Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language Study French papier livre plume école Study Spanish papel libro pluma escuela French 101 Mid-term exam F- Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference Notes: This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference. retroactive interference

27 Proactive Interference
Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language F- key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference Notes: This is similar to the slide for retroactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.

28 Constructing Memories
Relating Semantic & Episodic Memory: PDP model allows us to increase our general knowledge of the world by accessing a network of facts and associations; however, they can facilitate spontaneous generalizations of networks that are based on limited or biased info Schemas – organized clusters of knowledge and info about particular topics. What’s your schema for a dog? Contribute to memory distortions when the info learned is inconsistent with previously learned schemas.

29 Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Does research in memory construction
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Affects eyewitness testimony

30 Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalysis
Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

31

32 Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

33 Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed
collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h. Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

34 Eyewitness Testimony Recall not an exact replica of original events
What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts


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