1. Divine command ethics, The morale positivism of Thomos Hobbes, Virtue Ethics.
Basnet Narayan.

3. Divine Command Theory General questions about morality:
What kinds of actions are morally right/wrong?
Why? In virtue of what (are they right/wrong)?
Are there objective truths about morality?
Divine command theory argues that the foundation of morality is God’s will
Right acts are those that are in accordance with God’s Will; Wrong acts…

5. Socrates’ Question
Are actions right because God commands them, or does God command them because they are right?
According to divine command theory, an act is right (if it is) because God commands it. God’s command makes it right.

7. Objections 1. “This conception of morality is mysterious”
2. ….makes God’s commands arbitrary
3 …provides the wrong reasons

8. The morale positivism of Thomos Hobbes
The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ( ) is best known for his political thought, and deservedly so.
His vision of the world is strikingly original and still relevant to contemporary politics.
His main concern is the problem of social and political order: how human beings can live together in peace and avoid the danger and fear of civil conflict.
He poses stark alternatives: we should give our obedience to an unaccountable sovereign (a person or group empowered to decide every social and political issue). Otherwise what awaits us is a "state of nature" that closely resembles civil war – a situation of universal insecurity, where all have reason to fear violent death and where rewarding human cooperation is all but impossible.

10. Virtue ethics Ethics isn’t just about acting, but about living
An action is right if and only if it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically (i.e. acting in character) do in the circumstances
Knowing how to act takes practical wisdom, which involves experience and insight

12. What is a virtue?
Aristotle: a virtue is a state of character by which you ‘stand well’ in relation to your desires, emotions and choices:
‘to feel [desires and emotions] at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way’
Virtues are traits that are necessary for ‘living well’.

13. The Virtues Intellectual Virtues Moral Virtues
Wisdom, Understanding, Prudence
Taught through instruction
Moral Virtues
Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance
The result of habit
Not natural or inborn but acquired through practice
Habit or disposition of the soul (our fundamental character) which involves both feeling and action
“Those strengths of character that enable us to flourish” (Hinman)

14. The Virtues
Defined / understood in terms of spheres of human experience
Fear of important damages
Courage
Bodily appetites and their pleasures
Moderation
Distribution of limited resources
Justice
Attitude to slights and damages
Mildness of Temper
Adapted from Martha C. Nussbaum, “Non-Relative Virtues”

16. The Doctrine of the Mean
Proper position between two extremes
Vice of excess
Vice of deficiency
Not an arithmetic median
Relative to us and not the thing
Not the same for all of us, or
Any of us, at various occasions
“In this way, then, every knowledgeable person avoids excess and deficiency, but looks for the mean and chooses it” (II.6)

17. The doctrine of the mean
Virtues and virtuous actions lie between ‘intermediate’ between two vices of ‘too much’ and ‘too little’
E.g. being good-tempered
But this is not the same as ‘moderation’ on all occasions
E.g. not moderate anger, but anger appropriate to the situation
Not arithmetical – corresponding vices aren’t always ‘too much’ or ‘too little’
E.g. honesty v. tactlessness v. deception

18. The Mean

19. Practical wisdom
Aristotle: ‘a true and reasoned state of capacity to act with regard to the things that are good or bad for man’
a general conception of what is good or bad (conditions for human flourishing);
the ability to perceive, in light of that general conception, what is required in terms of feeling, choice, and action in a particular situation;
the ability to deliberate well; and
the ability to act on that deliberation.

20. Contextualism
There are no true generalizations about right and wrong – practical wisdom is a form of intuitive reason.
But ethics is not subjective; it is ‘context-sensitive’.
Practical wisdom cannot be taught, but must be acquired through experience.

21. Objections Not everyone can know what is right
Is this a strong objection? If there is any moral knowledge, why assume everyone has it?
The doctrine of the mean is useless
Virtue ethics provides no guidance
Ask a virtuous person
Frame questions in terms of virtues
Can virtues conflict?
Is there an objective truth about what it takes to ‘live well’?

22. Virtue ethics approach
1. Individual virtue and integrity count, but good corporate ethics programs encourage individual virtue and integrity. 2. By the employee’s role in the community (organization), these virtues associated with appropriate conduct form a good person. 3. The ultimate purpose is to serve society’s demands and the public good and to be rewarded in one’s career. 4. The well-being of the community goes together with individual excellence because of the social consciousness and public spirit of every individual.

23. Implications

24. Any Questions ??

25. Thank you.