1. Explanation: Phobia https://vimeo.com/hilaryohare
Psychopathology
Explanation: Phobia

2. Are you wearing your lanyard?

3. SMART Targets: check beginning of the week

4. Starter
Each think of a number between 20 & 40. Whatever number you select, you need to summarise the explanation of phobias in that many words Un-jumble the characteristics: colour coding the correct characteristics under the right disorder.

5. Task: Application of the two-process model
As a child, Ali was bitten by a small dog when he was playing in the park. He had noticed the dog and reached out towards it. Unfortunately the dog attacked Ali’s outstretched hand. Although the dog was quickly brought under control by its owner, the dog bite was considered serious and Ali needed a number of stitches on the palm of his hand. As a teenager Ali has fear of all breeds of dog and becomes anxious when near dogs, especially if they are not on a lead. He never visits a friend’s home if they own a dog and will leave the park if a dog if off their lead.
Step 1: Classical conditioning
Apply this concept of classical conditioning to Ali’s fear of all breeds of dog.
Step 2: Operant conditioning
Using the concept of negative and positive reinforcement, explain Ali’s continued fear and subsequent avoidance of dogs.
Practice exam question: Suggest how the behavioural approach might be used to explain Ali’s phobia of dogs (4 marks).

6. How many marks? Any improvements?
Previously Ali was not scared of dogs as he reached out his hand to one so he acquired his phobia through classical conditioning. Him being bitten and having to have stitches caused him pain. This means that dogs immediately became associated with fear after being his dog phobia. This phobia was maintained through reinforcement as he avoids going to peoples houses or dogs not on a lead in order to avoid the feeling of anxiety he feels. He keeps doing this every time he sees a dog and avoids feeling anxious and so his phobia is maintained.

7. How about this answer?
Previously Ali was not scared of dogs as he reached out his hand to one (it was a neutral stimulus) so he acquired his phobia through classical conditioning. Him being bitten and having to have stitches (unconditioned stimulus)caused him pain which was an unconditioned response. This means that dogs immediately became a conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response being his dog phobia. This phobia was maintained through negative reinforcement as he avoids going to peoples houses or dogs not on a lead in order to avoid the unpleasant feeling of anxiety he feels. He keeps doing this every time he sees a dog and avoids feeling anxious and so his phobia is maintained.

8. Evaluation of the two-process model

9. Exam skills: How do we evaluate explanations of behaviour?
Evidence – supporting/contradicting
Evaluation of supporting evidence
What are the limitations of the explanation? E.g. Does it fail to explain any aspect of the behaviour?
Why is this a good explanation?
Practical/useful applications
Comparison of explanation with another
Relevant issues and debates

10. Evidence
Sue et al (1994) found that people with phobias often recall a specific incident when their phobia appeared e.g. being bitten by a dog or experiencing a panic attack in a social situation. Barlow & Durand (1995) report that 50% of those with specific fear of driving remember a traumatic experience while driving (e.g. an accident) as having caused the onset of the phobia, e.g. some people become intensely afraid of driving a car after a serious accident (associate car with accident)

11. Which of the following statements provide the best grounding for the Sue et al (1994) study and why?
Sue et al (1994) found that people with phobias often recall a specific incident when their phobia appeared e.g. being bitten by a dog or experiencing a panic attack in a social situation.  
This supports the explanation because it shows how phobias result from bad experiences.
This supports the model because it shows how people learn phobias through associating fear with an object/situation.
This supports the model as it shows people who have had a negative experience with a previously neutral stimulus will lead to a new and consistent fear response.

12. Over to you!
On MWBs: Write an explanation for how Barlow & Durand’s study supports the two-process model.

13. Alternative explanations?
What explanation could there be for the results shown below?

14. Biological preparedness (Seligman)
Seligman argued that animals, including humans, have evolved to be fearful of potentially life-threatening stimuli because having such phobias are adaptive. In our evolutionary past, our ancestors have survived because they have avoided dangerous situations or objects. Therefore, this biological preparedness has been selected into our genes.

15. What other explanations could there be for the findings?
Ost (1987) notes that many people with severe fears of snakes, germs, aeroplanes & heights have had no particularly unpleasant experiences with any of these objects or situations.
Dinardo (1988) found participants in a control group without a phobia of dogs, experienced a similar proportion of fearful incidents with a dog but had not developed a phobia.
What does this research suggest about behavioural explanations of phobias?
What other explanations could there be for the findings?
(Could lead to discussion of evolutionary explanations – biological preparedness; cognitive explanations & nature vs nurture)

16. Practical applications (Usefulness)
Eloise has a fear of buttons, she refuses to wear any clothes with buttons and even refuses to go to any clothes shop. When Eloise was at school, she had to wear lost property which had buttons that pinched her and left a bruise. How could you treat Eloise’s phobia using classical conditioning? Extension: Do you see any problems with this treatment?

17. Overview
Supporting evidence e.g. Di Nardo et al (1988) 60% of dog phobics reported painful experience with a dog, Watson and Rayner (1920) Little Albert.
Numerous lab studies show that fear reactions can be easily conditioned in animals
It is possible to decondition phobias (flooding and systematic desensitisation)
Individual differences - Not everybody who experiences a traumatic event goes on to develop a phobia
Some fears develop gradually and can’t be traced back to a specific conditioning incident
Some people have a phobia of something they have never come in to contact with so how can it be learnt?!
Reductionist – ignores other factors e.g. thought processes, genetics, evolution
Poor ecological validity – the evidence is largely lab based
Nature/Nurture – only account for nurture and ignores nature ( behavior is more likely to be a combination of both)

18. Activity: evaluation points
Each choose an evaluation point to elaborate on
One strength of the behaviourist explanation of phobias comes from research evidence…
Another strength of the behaviourist explanation is its application to therapy….
However, the behaviourist explanation has been criticised for being reductionist and overly simplistic…

19. Overview: evaluation points
One strength of the behaviourist explanation of phobias comes from research evidence…Watson & Raynor (1920) demonstrated the process of classical conditioning in the formation of phobias in Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear white rats. This supports the idea that classical conditioning is involved in acquiring phobias.
Another strength of the behaviourist explanation is its application to therapy. The behaviourist ideas have been used to develop effective treatments, including systematic desensitisation and flooding. Systematic desensitisation helps people to unlearn their fears, using the principles of classical conditioning, while flooding prevents people from avoiding their phobias and stops the negative reinforcement from taking place. Consequently, these therapies have been successfully used to treat people with phobias, providing further support to the behaviourist explanation.

20. Overview: evaluation points
However, the behaviourist explanation has been criticised for being reductionist and overly simplistic. The behaviourist approach ignores the role of cognition (thinking) in the formation of phobias and cognitive psychologists suggest that phobias may develop as a result of irrational thinking, not just learning.
For example, sufferers of claustrophobia (a fear of confined space) may think: ‘I am going to be trapped in this lift and suffocate’, which is an irrational thought and not taken into consideration in the behaviourist explanation. Furthermore, the cognition approach has also led to the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), a treatment which is said to be more successful than the behaviourist treatments.

21. Use the frame for guidance
Plan an answer to…
Describe and Evaluate The Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias (16 marks)
Use the frame for guidance

22. Modal answer