1. Introduction to Philosophy
Philosophical Terms
Logic
Things you ought to know.

2. QTF
“If you are smart, you are wise.”

3. What is Philosophy? WISDOM!
Philosophy is about:
Finding answers to serious questions about ourselves and about the world we live in:
What is morally right and wrong? And why?
What is a good life?
Does God exist?
What is the mind?
What is art?
Is the world really as it appears to us?
What can we know?
…and much, much more
Questioning existing knowledge and intuitions to get closer to the truth

4. Philosophy
Our primary concern is to do what is right and to believe what is true.
Philosophy provides us with some of the intellectual/conceptual skills we need to achieve this.
But these skills are difficult to acquire.

5. What skills? The study of philosophy involves critical thinking.
Critical thinking is the use of reason, deliberation, investigation, assessment of arguments, and assessment of justification.
This is a skill that is necessary in all aspects of our daily life as citizens, professionals and persons.

6. Doing philosophy…
Philosophy is not merely a matter of developing and defending one’s own view.
It requires understanding, considering, and giving fair weight to competing alternative views.
You will often see both of these things going on in the papers you read.
It is important to distinguish the philosopher’s own view from those he/she are arguing against.

7. Doing philosophy…
Philosophy requires that we consider the rational implications/consequences of our beliefs.
If you believe that x, then what does that commit you to? what follows from x?
Often, upon examination, we find that our beliefs lead us to unacceptable conclusions:
“Lying is (always) wrong”
“Poor people are just lazy”
“God is omnipotent”

8. Doing philosophy… Philosophy involves evaluating arguments.
To give an argument for a claim is to give reasons (evidence) for that claim.
What counts as good vs. poor reasons (evidence)?
Good: Perception/Introspection/Rational intuition/Reasoning/Empirical data/Expert opinion
Poor: Hearsay/Social conditioning/Popular opinion/Blind faith

9. Open your Mind!
This course deals with abstract questions and topics, many of which you may have never considered.
If you have an open mind and put forth a consistent effort you will do fine in this course!

10. So what is philosophy for?

11. Activity
Ice Breaker-find a student.
Personal Meaning
Due EOC.

12. Warm Up
What would you do if there was no tomorrow? Taken at face value, this is a fairly straightforward question.
What actions would you take? What would be the foundation of your principles?
It is a straightforward question, but it is also a complicated one. The question is whether or not our choices would be made based on the merit, the value, of their reasons, or on the subjective interest of our desires. 

13. Philosophy- The love of wisdom
Divisions of Philosophy
Epistemology: Theory of Knowledge
Metaphysics: Nature of Existence
Ethics: Study of Right and Wrong
Political Philosophy
Philosophy of Religion
Aesthetics
Eastern Philosophy
Logic

14. Logic The science of rational thought.
Formal tools or ways of reasoning.
Rhetoric- The art of persuading people

15. Formal and Informal Logic
Formal logic- employ a structured argument with a set of premises and one conclusion.
1.If P then Q
2. P
3. Therefore Q

16. Deductive Logic Deductive logic-
If the structure of the argument is VALID
And if the premises are TRUE or SOUND then the CONCLUSION must be TRUE!
1. PQ 1. PQ
2. P 2. Q
3. Q 3. P
Valid Invalid

17. Inductive Logic Practical knowledge- Inductive logic or reasoning.
1. I have measured 1000 triangles and the sum of the internal angles always adds up to 180 degrees.
2. Therefore the next triangle I measure, the angles will add up to 180 degrees.

18. Fallacies A Fallacy is a logical defect in an argument.
There are formal or structural fallacies and informal fallacies which are flaws in thinking.

19. Argument ad Hominem
Argue that a proposition must be false, because of the person making the argument.
This is a Fallacy in reasoning- you should attack the argument not the person making it.

20. Appeal to Emotion
Try to prove an argument based upon sympathy or an appeal to emotion-
This is a Fallacy in reasoning- emotions are irrelevant to the structure of an argument and the validity of its conclusion.
This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

21. Appeal to the People or Majority
Some argue that the majority must be right?
Was the majority right when the majority of people thought slavery was okay? Or the majority is Nazi Germany thought concentration camps were good ideas?
This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

22. Appeal to Tradition
Some argue that since it has always been that way, it should continue to be that way.
Traditional marriage, traditional family… the traditional family servant or slave.
Traditions can be important, but they are not all equally rational.
This type of thinking can be a fallacy.

23. False Dilemma
In this situation, an argument is given which ignores viable alternatives:
1. If you don’t believe in God, then you will go to Hell….
2. Therefore, you’d better believe in God.
Well, maybe there is no heaven or hell.

24. Example from Animal Rights
Descartes:
1. If you do not have a soul,
Then you do not have rights.
2. Animals do not have souls.
3. Therefore, Animals do not have rights.

25. Crazy Utilitarian Argument
1. People have rights.
2. Animals have rights.
3. Therefore people and animals have the same rights.
People are equal to Goats.

26. Video

27. Activity Constructing an argument-work in pairs. Prepare to present!
Due EOC.

28. Warm Up
"The consequences of an act affect the probability of it occurring again." B.F. Skinner *
Evaluate the validity of thought behind this quotation and use support to defend your position.

29. Let’s do Some Philosophy: Two Thought Experiments
The Trolley Bus Problem and the Spare Parts Surgeon are examples of problems you will find in ethics courses
We can use thought experiments like these to work out what is going on when we make a moral judgement and…
Give insight into what makes moral judgements right and wrong

30. The Tram Dilemma
An out of control tram will soon kill 5 people who are stuck on the track.
You can flick a switch to divert the tram to another track where only one person is stuck.
Should you flip the switch?
Should you kill one person to save five?
SWITCH

31. The Surgeon’s Dilemma You are a surgeon with six patients.
Five of them need major organ transplants.
The sixth, an ideal donor for all the relevant organs, is in hospital for a minor operation.
Should you kill one person to save five?

32. What’s going on here? Should you kill one person to save five?
Trolley Dilemma = “yes”
Surgeon Dilemma = “no”
If you have two conflicting intuitions then either:
there must be some morally relevant difference between the two cases, or
One or more of your intuitions is wrong
So which is it?

33. Back to Moral Theory
We want to know what makes actions morally right or wrong…
And, how can we know?
Moral ‘common sense’ might not be enough

34. What’s going on here? Should you kill one person to save five?
Trolley Dilemma = “yes”
Surgeon Dilemma = “no”
If you have two conflicting intuitions then either:
there must be some morally relevant difference between the two cases, or
One or more of your intuitions is wrong
So which is it?

35. Morally Relevant Differences?
You guys try to spot some
And I’ll try to explain them away

36. Did Our Moral Common Sense get it Wrong?
Should you kill one person to save five?
Trolley Dilemma = “yes”
Surgeon Dilemma = “no”
Does anyone think one answer is wrong?

37. Jungle Dilemma You are trekking alone in the Amazon.
You discover an evil army officer and his troops rounding up villagers.
Unless you kill one, the troops will kill six.
Should you kill one person to save five?

38. Jungle Dilemma Cont. What if there are 2 villagers?
Can you ever kill one innocent person to save many?

39. Activity Find the fallacy
Practice critical thinking-–eventually you are going to evaluate the claim that life has meaning/purpose.
Consult this website to gather your own personal thoughts:
Then answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper:
What do YOU think the purpose of life is?
Do you think you are here for a reason? Explain why/why not.
Do you think human life is valuable? Explain why/why not?
Is it possible to think that human life is valuable but life itself is meaningless? Explain why/why not.

40. Warm Up
If you could describe a perfect life with just three words, what would they be?

41. The Meaning of Life

42. ‘Absurd’ in the Ordinary Sense
A noticeable difference between what someone intends or claims and reality
A clash between the internal and external perspectives
George Bush doesn’t think he’s a kitten-eater, but…
Everyone else knows that he is

43. Absurd to Philosophers
The dramatic difference between:
Our (internal) perception of the significance of our lives
The objective (external) perception of the significance of our lives
It’s absurd because, from the external view, our lives have only a tiny fraction of the significance that we feel and act as though it has

44. Our Significance from the Inside
Every event in the universe is viewed by its actual and likely impacts on us
Events are only significant if they are likely to or actually do significantly affect us
The universe revolves around us
We are all like this to some extent, but some people don’t realise that this is the same for other people!
You may know people like this

45. Our Significance from the Outside
Each and every one of us are completely insignificant to % of what exists
Ex: When global warming kills the universe, our plans would seem beyond insignificant to anything left to observe
Even if we do have free will, so many of our ‘choices’ are still the result of our prior causes
Why will most of you vote for the same political party that your parents do?
Why are you so individual?

46. The Human Condition From the inside, our significance is paramount
From the outside, our significance is basically none-existent
The Human Condition is being aware of the contradiction between these two points, the absurdity of our situation
Humans are thought to be unique in their ability to be aware of this situation

47. The Myth of Sisyphus
Sisyphus made a deal with the Gods and then went back on it
They punished him by giving him a meaningless chore to do for eternity
Nothing comes of Sisyphus’ labours
And nothing will ever come of them
His existence is meaningless

48. Video

49. What if He Wanted to Roll Rocks?
Imagine that the Gods changed Sisyphus’ desires so that all he wants to do is roll the rock up the hill
He now gets exactly what he wants for all eternity
Sounds great!
But, does this make his existence any more meaningful?

50. Taylor on Meaning Meaninglessness is endless pointlessness
Meaningfulness is activity with a point, a result, a significant culmination
So, which of these best represents all life as we know it?
This includes plants and animals

51. Is Life (in General) Meaningful?
Glow worms, cicadas and the meaningless cycle of life
The only point of any living thing’s life is just life itself

52. Is Life (in General) Meaningful?
Humans also follow and perpetuate the meaningless cycle of life
We imagine that we have goals and plans, but are they really for anything other than surviving and reproducing?
Even when our achievements create lasting results, like building a temple, how long will it persist and will it prevent our children from merely surviving and reproducing?

53. The Meaning of Life is Life Itself?
This answer is not very satisfying
Many people have religious beliefs that centre around a departure from this meaningless cycle
Going to heaven
Becoming enlightened, etc.
But which religion is right?
Are there any good reasons to believe one over another?

54. Activity Read the myth and answer the corresponding questions.
Then go to your corner and prepare to debate against the opposing team.
Construct an argument for your side and provide 5 pieces of evidence/justification.

55. Warm Up
The world would be a better place without ____________________. *

56. What Does ‘What is the Meaning of Life’ Mean?
What does life mean? (Not interesting)
To us, it means not being dead or lifeless
To a God, it might mean amusement or experiment
To a plant, it probably doesn’t mean anything
What is the purpose for life?
Various religious purposes
To continue the cycle of life
There is no purpose for life
But, if there is a purpose for life, then life is meaningless!!

57. A Purpose for Life Makes it Meaningless
P1) If life has an ultimate purpose, then it must be either possible or impossible to fulfill that purpose
P2) If it’s impossible, then life is cruel and meaningless
P3) If it is possible, then
not fulfilling it would make your life meaningless
and fulfilling it would also make your life meaningless (because then there would be no more point to it!)
C) Therefore, if life has an ultimate purpose, then life is meaningless

58. What Does ‘What is the Meaning of Life’ Mean?
So, perhaps the best way to understand this question is taking it to mean:
‘How can we make our lives meaningful?’
Turn to your table partners to brainstorm and discuss.
Ill give you 10 minutes to come up with 5 points.
Prepare to share with the rest of class.

59. Video

60. How Can We Make Our Lives Meaningful?
The answer should be objective
We should all be able to follow whatever the answer is and be able to make our lives meaningful
Follow religious guidance (and make sure you pick the right one)
Taylor: Simply understand that the meaning of life is to live in the manner in which it is our nature to live
The glow worm does what it is supposed to do in it’s nature

61. How Can We Make Our Lives Meaningful?
Taylor: For humans, then, the meaning of life is living as we will to live
This might make you dissatisfied with our lot, but remember – if there were a purpose for life, then life would very likely be cruel and meaningless!
Taylor: So, the meaning of life comes from within us – living in accordance with our will is how we can achieve meaning in our lives

62. What Does this Mean for Us?
Taylor: So, the meaning of life comes from within us – living in accordance with our will is how we can achieve meaning in our lives
We are beings-towards-a-future
Our plans are the only significant thing we have – only the pursuit of them brings meaning to our lives
These plans are absurdly insignificant from the outside, but not so from the inside – thank goodness!
Without the subjective importance of our own plans, our lives would truly be meaningless

63. Dealing With Doubt
But, what do you do if you have a bout of feeling that life is meaningless?
Watch a child play and see how the tiniest idea or object can mean so much to them
And remember, the fact that your experiences feel real to you is enough to give life meaning
And that the same is true of others as well
So, make some plans, do something fun, or just do something that will make someone else feel good!

64. Take-Home Lessons
Don’t drop out of school or you might end up with a job like Sisyphus
No one likes it when you act like you are the center of the universe
The meaning of life is the same for all life
Taylor: The meaning of life is the meaning that each of us continuously experiences in our lives through the act of living

65. Activity

66. Movie