1. The Age of Reason & Enlightenment

2. An Overview of the 18c Political History >>> Reform
Intellectual History  Newtonian Physics  Reason
Cultural History  Individualism
Social History  Increased Literacy  “Age of Aristocracy”
Economic History > Mercantilism to Capitalism

3. 18c Politics BRITAIN – Constitutional Monarchy
FRANCE  Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity)
PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA  “Enlightened Despotism”
OTTOMAN EMPIRE – traditional empire

4. The Origins of Enlightenment?
SCIENTIFIC:
Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical.
Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas.
Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.

5. William Blake’s Newton, 1795

6. The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

7. A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.
Zoology & Biology
A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.

8. Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

9. Natural History Collections
Cocoa plant drawing.
Sir Hans Sloane ( ).
Collected from Jamaica.

10. Natural History Collections
James Petiver’s Beetles (London apothecary)

11. The Origins of Modern Museums.
Private Collections
The Origins of Modern Museums.

12. The German astronomer Hevelius & his wife examine the heavens.
Women & Science
The German astronomer Hevelius & his wife examine the heavens.

13. The Origins of Enlightenment?
RELIGIOUS:
physico-theology – an attempt (inspired by science) to explain God’s Providence by reference to his work in nature & not primarily through his biblical Word.
support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions.

14. The Origins of Enlightenment?
RELIGIOUS:
Deism
The belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the light of nature and reason.
Deists saw no point in any particular religion; they recognized only a distant God, uninvolved in the daily life of man.

15. The Origins of Enlightenment?
RELIGIOUS:
Pantheism
The belief that God and nature are one and the same.
Gradually, highly educated Protestants & Catholics thought more about God’s work as revealed through science, rather than through the Scriptures.

16. Centers of the Enlightenment

17. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment
Rationalism  reason is the arbiter of all things.
Cosmology  a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the universe.
Secularism  application of the methods of science to religion & philosophy.

18. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment
Scientific Method
Mathematical analysis
Experimentation
Inductive reasoning.
Utilitarianism  the greatest good for the greatest number.
Tolerance  No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for.

19. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment
Optimism & Self-Confidence
The belief that man is intrinsically good.
The belief in social progress.
Freedom
Of thought and expression.
Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).
Education of the Masses

20. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment
Legal Reforms
Justice, kindness, and charity  no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.
Due process of law.
Constitutionalism
Written constitutions  listing citizens, rights.
Cosmopolitanism.

21. The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe
Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking  CHANGE & PROGRESS!
They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

22. Traditions and Superstitions
The “Great Debate”
Reason & Logic
Traditions and Superstitions
rationalism
empiricism
tolerance
skepticism
Deism
nostalgia for the past
organized religions
irrationalism
emotionalism

23. John Locke (1632-1704) Letter on Toleration, 1689
Two Treatises of Government, 1690
Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693
The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695

24. John Locke’s Philosophy (I)
The individual must become a “rational creature.”
Virtue can be learned and practiced.
Human beings possess free will.
they should be prepared for freedom.
obedience should be out of conviction, not out of fear.
Legislators owe their power to a contract with the people.
Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.

25. John Locke’s Philosophy (II)
There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.
life, liberty, property!
The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense.
He favored a republic as the best form of government.

26. Thomas Paine ( )
Common Sense, 1776
The Rights of Man, 1791

27. The American “Philosophes”
John Adams ( )
Thomas Jefferson ( )
Ben Franklin ( )
…...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...

28. The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Persian Letters, 1721
On the Spirit of Laws, 1758

29. Montesquieu’s Philosophy
monarchies (governments run by a king or queen), which relied on the principle of honor,
republics (governments run by elected leaders), which relied on the principle of virtue,
and despotisms (governments run by dictators), which relied on fear.
A separation of political powers ensured freedom and liberty.

30. A separation of political powers ensured freedom and liberty.
Montesquieu believed that the best form of government was divided into three branches
Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" prompted the creators of the Constitution to divide the U.S. government into three separate branches

31. In republican governments, men are all equal; equal they are also in despotic governments: in the former, because they are everything; in the latter, because they are nothing."

32. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
A Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, 1750
Emile, 1762.
The Social Contract, 1762.

33. Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)
Question Does progress in the arts and sciences correspond with progress in morality?
As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.
Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their natural state.
Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them!

34. Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)
Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”
Government must preserve “virtue” and ”liberty.”
Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.
The concept of the ”Noble Savage.”
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
Civil liberty  invest ALL rights and liberties into a society.

35. Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)
In The Social Contract:
The right kind of political order could make people truly moral and free.
Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject one’s individual interests to the “General Will.”
Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.
This social contract was derived from human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.

36. Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)
People would be most free and moral under a republican form of government with direct democracy.
However, the individual could be “forced to be free” by the terms of the social contract.
He provided no legal protections for individual rights.
Rousseau’s thinking:
Had a great influence on the French revolutionaries of 1789.
His attacks on private property inspired the communists of the 19c such as Karl Marx.

37. Popularizing the Enlightenment

38. A Parisian Salon

39. Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

40. The Salonnieres Madame Geoffrin (1699-1777)
Madame Suzanne Necker ( )
Mademoiselle Julie de Lespinasse (1732*-1776)

41. Other Female Salons
Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin.
In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania.
Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.

42. Female Philosophes
Emilie du Chatalet, a French noblewoman ( ).
Wrote extensively about the mathematics and physics of Gottfried Wilhelm von Lebnitz and Isaac Newton.
Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.

43. Denis Diderot ( )
All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone’s feelings.
We will speak against senseless laws until they are reformed; and, while we wait, we will abide by them.

44. Diderot’s Encyclopédie

45. The Encyclopédie
Complete cycle of knowledge…………...… change the general way of thinking.
28 volumes.
Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated.
First published in 1751.
1500 livres a set.

46. Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

47. Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

48. Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

49. Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

50. The “Republic of Letters”
URBAN – gathering of elites in the cities. (salons)
URBANE – cosmopolitan, worldly
music, art, literature, politics
read newspapers & the latest books.
POLITENESS – proper behavior [ [self-governed]

51. Reading During the Enlightenment
Literacy:
80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o women.
Books were expensive (one day’s wages).
Many readers for each book (20 : 1)
novels, plays & other literature.
journals, memoirs, “private lives.”
philosophy, history, theology.
newspapers, political pamphlets.

52. An Increase in Reading

53. Joseph II of Austria

54. The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on the defensive.
Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.

55. The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations.
19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)

56. The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”).
Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with.