1. Language
AP Psychology

2. What is Language?
Language -- how we combine spoken, written words as we think and communicate
Simply put, language is one of the most important characteristics of human behavior.

3. What Language Is: Human language can convey meaning about:
The Past
The Present
The Future
Hypothetical Future
Because we can transcend time and space with language, we have an unlimited ability to communicate ideas.

4. What Language Isn’t Gestures that we often use are not language
For example, waving hello is not really an act of language because the simple act of waving does not transcend time or space.
When I wave to someone, I wave to them “right now,” not in an hour, not in a week, not yesterday.

5. What Language Isn’t
We have to leave out most animal communication because there are limits to what animals can communicate to each other.
When a dog barks, it is not an indication of some discomfort the animal had two weeks ago.
Rather, the animal is communicating that “right now” there is something in its world that is capturing the animal’s attention.

6. Structure Phonemes – smallest distinctive sound unit
For example, all the letters of the alphabet are phonemes
There is some overlap;
for example, c can make the k or the s sound—
a fact that children often struggle with.

7. Phonemes All the letters in the alphabet are phonemes
Blends (such as ch, sh, th, etc.) are also phonemes.
In English, we produce all the unique sounds that we are able to make by combining only about 40 to 50 unique phonemes. (between 40 and 50 because there is no universal agreement about this.)
Other languages make do with less. For example, Hawaiian is often cited as a language that has less than 30 phonemes.

8. Structure Morphemes – smallest unit that carries meaning
Many words are composed of a large variety of morphemes, which are all combined to produce a unique meaning.
Hint: “M” stands for morpheme and for meaning!
So, small words, such as dog or run are morphemes.
If we add the letter s to dog, we now have two morphemes (dog[s]),
and if we add ing to run, we now have two morphemes (runn[ing]).

9. Structure
Grammar – a system of rules that allows us to understand one another
Semantics – the study of meaning in language
Syntax – a set of rules for combining words in a sentence

10. Syntax--Rules for combining words in sentences
For example, in English, we typically place nouns or subjects first and verbs or predicates second
e.g., We are going to the store..
We can reverse the order, but we need to do so only in specific situations, such as when we want to ask a question
e.g., Are we going to the store?

11. Identifying Morphemes and Phonemes
Let’s Practice
Identifying Morphemes and Phonemes
Complete #4 on the front, and all of part 2

12. Language Development

13. Development of Language
Babbling stage
Begins around 4 months – make random noises of all
Around 10 months – babbles restricted to noise of home language
Video

14. Development of Language
One-word stage
Around 12 months
word learning begin to explode around 18 months

15. Development of Language
Two-word stage (telegraphic speech)
Around 24 months
Follows rules of syntax
After age 2, children very quickly develop long phrases.

16. Development of Language

17. Development of Language
This pattern is not only predictable in English.
Other languages show the same pattern of language acquisition.
In addition, all children appear to babble the same way.
children make the same noises in all languages as they acquire language.

18. Development of Language
As a native language begins to emerge, sounds appropriate to that language are strengthened, and the inappropriate sounds (like babbling) drop out.
This explains why parents often believe that children are babbling in a foreign language!

19. Development of Language
Predictions
Children can make predictions about language at about the same time.
For example, if children are told that they are looking at a “wug,” and then are asked what one would say if there were two of these critters, they will say “wugs.”

20. Development of Language
In addition, if they are told that a person will “wik,” they will generate the forms “wiked” and “wiking.”
Thus, they seem to learn the rules that they can then apply where appropriate.

21. Language Development Overextension
Children in their second and third years sometimes use words as overextensions;
“doggie,” for instance, may refer to a variety of four-legged animals as well as to dogs,
The word “daddy” may be used in reference to all men
This occurs simply because, although the infant detects the differences among various types of animals, he has only one word (“dog”)...

22. Language Development Overregularization:
Children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words,
such as the use of goed for went.
One of the first rules that English-speaking children apply is to add -s to form the plural.
Overregularization leads many young children to talk about foots, tooths, sheeps, and mouses.
They may even put the -s on adjectives when the adjectives are acting as nouns, as in this dinner-table exchange between my 3-year-old and her father:
Sarah: I want somes.
Father: You want some what?
Sarah: I want some mores.
Father: Some more what?
Sarah: I want some more chickens.

23. Explaining Language Development
Skinner/Behaviorist Approach –
language is learned like everything else with the principles of association, imitation, and reinforcement.
When we are reinforced, we repeat the behavior

24. Explaining Language Development
Noam Chomsky –
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Children are pre-wired with a capability to learn language (innate).
The specific language is learned
The brain is like a language-acquisition device.

25. Language Acquisition Device
Language is learned through exposure to language
Interaction with environment allows that skill to emerge
There is a sensitive period of language acquisition
If we do not learn language during this time, we are not going to learn language well
Chomsky disagreed with the Behavioral Approaches
They do not take into account the problem that we learn language differently than we learn other things.

26. Animal thinking and language
Do animals think? Yes.
Monkeys can count
Monkeys show insight
Apes use tools and learn from each other.
Apes pass the self- concept test.
Apes can be deceptive

27. Animal thinking and language
Do Animals have Language?
Evidence for yes:
Honeybees – waggle dance
Washoe (a chimp) was taught sign language (181 signs) even put signs together in novel ways.
Others as well.
Spontaneous signing
Spontaneous learning

28. Animal thinking and language
Apes Don’t Have Language?
Not easy for apes
Maybe just making gestures for rewards?
Lack syntax.
Confirmation bias!
Koko—Doll
Koko-Love?

29. The Secret Language of Elephants