1. A Cultural Approach to Child Development
Chapter 1
A Cultural Approach to Child Development
Copyright © 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

2. Learning Objectives (1 of 4)
1.1 Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10,000 years and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path from other developed countries. 1.2 Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of child development within countries. 1.3 Trace the evolutionary origins of the human species and summarize the features of the first human cultures. 1.4 Apply information about human evolution to how child development takes place today.

3. Learning Objectives (2 of 4)
1.5 Summarize Freud’s psychosexual theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory of child development and describe the main limitations of each. 1.6 Describe behaviorism, including the role of conditioning and the variation known as social learning theory. 1.7 Summarize the constructivists theories of Piaget and Vygotsky.

4. Learning Objectives (3 of 4)
1.8 Describe the elements of the information- processing model of cognitive functioning. 1.9 Define the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework Describe the main components of the ecocultural theory of Weisner and explain how it differs from stage theories Outline the cultural-developmental model that will be the structure of this book and describe the new life stage of emerging adulthood.

5. Learning Objectives (4 of 4)
1.12 Recall the five steps of the scientific method and the meanings and functions of hypotheses, sampling, and procedure in scientific research Describe some ethical standards for child development research Summarize the main methods used in research on child development Describe the major types of research designs used in child development research.

6. Child Development Today and Its Origins

7. Introduction to Child Development
Child Development– the way people grow and change from conception through emerging adulthood
Biological, cognitive, psychological, and social functioning
Culture – the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology, transmitted through language

8. Population Growth and the Demographic Divide (1 of 4)
Total fertility rate – in a population, the number of births per woman
Developed countries – most affluent countries in the world
18% of total world population
Developing countries – less wealth than the developed countries
82% of total world population

9. Population Growth and the Demographic Divide (2 of 4)
Two reasons the United States follows a different demographic path:
Total fertility rate is higher than most developed countries
United States allows more LEGAL immigration than most developed countries, and also has millions of undocumented immigrants
Highlight information regarding immigration in United States. Include both legal and illegal immigration.

10. Population Growth and the Demographic Divide (3 of 4)
40% of world’s population lives on less than $2 per day
80% of world’s population lives on a family income of less than $6,000 per year
Developed countries – 50% go on to tertiary education
Developing countries – about 20% of children don’t complete primary school

11. Population Growth and the Demographic Divide (4 of 4)
Individualistic – cultural values such as independence and self expression
Collectivistic – cultural values such as obedience and group harmony
Traditional culture – rural culture that adheres more closely to historical traditions than urban people
Globalization – increasing connections between different parts of the world

12. Figure 1.1 World Population Growth
What happened in recent human history to cause population to rise so dramatically? Source: Population Reference Bureau (2014)

13. Figure 1.2 Projected Ethnic Changes in the U.S. Population to 2050
Which ethnic group is projected to change the most in the coming decades, and why?

14. Map 1.1 Worldwide Variations in Population and Income Levels (1 of 2)

15. Map 1.1 Worldwide Variations in Population and Income Levels (2 of 2)
Developed countries represent only 18% of the world population yet they are much wealthier than developing countries. At what point in its economic development should a developing country be reclassified as a developed country?

16. Variations Within Countries
Majority culture – the group that sets most of the norms and standards and hold most of the positions of political, economic, intellectual and media power
Minority culture-group whose members share characteristics such as ethnicity, religion, or language
Contexts – settings and circumstances
Socioeconomic status (SES) – social class including educational level, income level, and occupational status
Gender – expectations of male and female roles
Ethnicity – cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language

17. Evolution and the Birth of Culture (1 of 4)
Darwin – The Origin of Species
Natural selection
Young are born with variations of characteristics
Species change little by little each generation

18. Evolution and the Birth of Culture (2 of 4)
Humans’ evolutionary beginning shares ancestry with chimpanzees and gorillas
Human evolutionary line called hominid line
Hominid line evolved into Homo sapiens

19. Evolution and the Birth of Culture (3 of 4)
Larger brains
Wider pelvis (female)
Longer dependency
Development of tools
Control of fire

20. Evolution and the Birth of Culture (4 of 4)
Upper Paleolithic Period
Art appeared, as did trade and cultural differences
Neolithic Period
10,000 to 5,000 years ago, animals and plants domesticated
Development of Civilization
Including Egyptian, India, China, and Mediterranean

21. Figure 1.3 Changes in Brain Size in Early Humans
Highlight development of bipedal locomotion.
Trace brain growth and scavenging roles as part of impetus of evolution.

22. Human Evolution and Child Development Today
Human development can be understood by understanding human evolution
Evolutionary psychology – Branch of psychology that examines how patterns of human functioning and behavior have resulted from adaptations to evolutionary conditions
Development is partly based on evolution
Little biological change since Homo sapiens
Development of larger brain contributes to culture and environmental expansion

23. Theories of Child Development

24. Classic Theories Classic theories date back 3,000 years
Greek philosopher, Solon divided early life into 7 year segments
Human lifespan is not really divided clearly into definitive biological stages
Scientific study of child development is only about 120 years old

25. Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud (1 of 2)
Based on Freud’s belief of sexual desire as the driving force behind human development
Driven by three psychic structures
Id: basis is pleasure principle
Superego: basis of conscience
Ego: basis of reality

26. Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud (2 of 2)
Psychosexual stages focused on areas of sensation and fixation
Limits include complexity of human behavior and Freud’s research methodology

27. Table 1.1 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Age period
Psychosexual stage
Main features
Infancy
Oral
Sexual sensations centered on the mouth; pleasure derived from sucking, chewing, biting
Toddlerhood
Anal
Sexual sensations centered on the anus; high interest in feces; pleasure derived from elimination
Early childhood
Phallic
Sexual sensations move to genitals; sexual desire for other-sex parent and fear of same-sex parent
Middle childhood
Latency
Sexual desires repressed; focus on developing social and cognitive skills
Adolescence
Genital
Reemergence of sexual desire, now directed outside the family
Table gives information for stages. Highlight Oedipus complex and give specifics on limitations as presented in textbook.

28. Psychoanalytic Theory: Erikson
Focuses on social and cultural environment and not on sexuality
Continued throughout life span and not limited to first six years, as with Freud
Eight stages of development characterized by crisis and resolution

29. Figure 1.5 Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Use table to highlight each stage.
Can use this time to ask critical thinking question.
“Based on experiences, which theory of human development do you consider more valid, Erikson’s or Freud’s?”

30. Behaviorism and Learning Theories
Focus on what a child does, rather than think, feel, or imagine
Conditioning is the fundamental learning process in behaviorism
Classical Conditioning-Neutral relate to meaningful
Operant Conditioning-Responding to environmental responses
Social Learning Theory allows for imitation and modeling

31. Constructivist Theories: Piaget
Piaget focused on different ways that children think as they age
Called cognitive developmental approach
Maturation-biologically driven
Schemes-cognitive structures
Assimilation-altering new information to fit existing scheme
Accommodation-changing a scheme to adapt new information

32. Table 1.2 Stages of Cognitive Development in Piaget’s Theory
Characteristics
0-2
Sensorimotor
Capable of coordinating the activities of the senses with motor activities
2-7
Preoperational
Capable of symbolic representations, such as in language, but with limited ability to use mental operations
7-1
Concrete Operations
Capable of using mental operations, but only in concrete, immediate experience; difficulty thinking hypothetically
11-15 and up
Formal Operations
Capable of thinking logically and abstractly; capable of formulating hypotheses and testing them systematically; thinking is more complex; and can think about thinking (metacognition)

33. Constructivist Theory: Vygotsky
Referred to as a sociocultural theory
Emphasis on society and cultural impact on learning
Two major ideas
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding

34. Information Processing Theory
Information Processing Approach
Views cognitive changes as continuous
Historically compared thinking to a computer
Focuses on areas of attention, perception and memory

35. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework
Focuses on multiple influences that shape behavior and is not a stage theory
Five levels:
Microsystem – Immediate environment
Mesosystem – Interconnections
Exosystem – Societal institutions
Macrosystem – Cultural beliefs and values
Chronosystem – Time, historical context

36. Figure 1.7 The Systems in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

37. Weisner’s Ecocultural Theory
Emphasizes ecological and cultural aspects of the activities and settings of development
Activity settings are important
Personnel
Cultural goals and schemas
Motives and feelings
Tasks
Normative scripts

38. Figure 1.8 Weisner’s Ecocultural Theory
Weisner’s ecocultural theory of child development proposes that there are ecocultural niche features that affect a child’s development.

39. A Cultural-Developmental Model
Cultural-Developmental Approach
Throughout life span people live within cultural communities where they continuously interact and negotiate with others who convey cultural beliefs, skills, and knowledge
Stages can be ambiguous and variable

40. Stage Theory Prenatal development Adolescence Infancy
Toddlerhood
Early childhood
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Emerging adulthood
Young adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

41. How We Study Child Development

42. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method (1 of 3)
The scientific method is composed of 5 steps
Identifying a question
Forming a hypothesis
Choosing a research method or design
Collecting data
Drawing conclusions

43. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method (2 of 3)
Identify a question of scientific interest
Can come from previous research, a theory, or personal observation
Form a hypothesis
The researcher’s idea about a possible answer to a research question
Will dictate research methods, design, and analysis

44. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method (3 of 3)
Choose a research method and design
The way hypotheses are investigated
Collect data to test the hypothesis
Researchers try to collect a sample that represents the population
Draw conclusions
Data is inferred and peer reviewed
Can lead to theory modification or changes

45. Figure 1.9 The Steps of the Scientific Method

46. Ethics in Child Development Research
Institutional review boards (IRBs) work to prevent ethical violations
Ethical guidelines include
Protection from physical and psychological harm
Informed consent prior to participation
Confidentiality
Deception and debriefing

47. Research Methods and Designs (1 of 6)
Researchers use various methods to investigate human development
Questionnaires
Closed or open-ended
Interviews – qualitative
Observations
Ethnographic research
Case studies
Biological methods

48. Research Methods and Designs (2 of 6)
Experiments help to establish cause and effect
Experimental group receives treatment
Control group receives no treatment
Independent variable – different for the experimental group than control group
Dependent variable – outcome that is measured to calculate results of the experiment
Give specifics of Experiment/Control/IV and DV

49. Research Methods and Designs (3 of 6)
Experiments
Advantage is degree of control
Disadvantage is applicability to real life
Natural Experiment
Exists naturally and provides interesting scientific information

50. Research Methods and Designs (4 of 6)
Researchers use multiple methods, but it is important that they have reliability and validity
Reliability: consistency of measurement
Validity: truthfulness of the measure
Does it measure what it claims to measure?

51. Research Methods and Designs (5 of 6)
Research design allows researchers to examine changes over time
Cross-sectional
Gathers information from wide age range at a single time
Correlation
Positive
Negative
Go in detail about strengths which connects to weaknesses and describe causation and correlation

52. Research Methods and Designs (6 of 6)
Longitudinal design follows same persons over time
Can focus on how people change over time
Can deal with cohort effects to some degree
Cross Sequential design combines cross sectional approach with longitudinal approach
Speak on strengths and weakness and there may still be generational effects as all individuals are from one time period

53. Table 1.3 Research Methods: Advantages and Limitations
Questionnaire
Large sample, quick data collection
Preset responses, no depth
Interview
Individuality and complexity
Time and effort of coding
Observations
Actual behavior, not self-report
Observation may affect behavior
Ethnographic research
Entire span of daily life
Researcher must live among participants; possible bias
Case studies
Rich, detailed data
Difficult to generalize results
Biological measurements
Precise data
Expensive; relation to behavior may not be clear
Experiment
Control, identification of cause and effect
May not reflect real life
Natural experiment
Illuminate gene–environment relations
Unusual circumstances; rare

54. Figure 1.10 Physical Health and Exercise Are Correlated—But Which Causes Which?

55. Figure 1.11 Religiosity Changes With Age—But Is It an Age Effect or a Cohort Effect?

56. Table 1.4 Research Designs: Advantages and Limitations
Method
Definition
Advantages
Limitations
Cross-sectional
Data collected at one time point
Quick and inexpensive
Correlations difficult to interpret
Longitudinal
Data collected at two or more time points
Monitors change over time
Time, expense,
attrition
Cross-Sequential
Data collected at two or more time points with the same participants, who are different ages at the outset of the study
Can detect differences related to chronological age and distinguish them from those related to cohort effects
Time, expense, attrition