1. DEFINING STATISTICS
PSYSTA1 – Week 1

2. Methods of KNOWING Authority Rationalism Intuition Scientific Method
truth due to tradition or because some person of distinction says it is true
Rationalism
uses reasoning alone to arrive at knowledge
Intuition
sudden insight springs into consciousness all at once as a whole; not arrived by reason but rather seems to occur after conscious reasoning has failed
Scientific Method
reliance on objective assessment, usually by reasoning deductively from existing theory or inductively from existing facts or through intuition, then designing a process to objectively test the formulated hypothesis
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS!!

3. SCIENTIFIC METHOD

4. Some DEFINITIONS Population Sample Variable
the complete set of individuals, objects, or scores that the investigator is interested in studying
Sample
a subset of the population
Variable
any property or characteristic of some event, object, or person that may have different values at different times depending on the conditions
contrasted with a constant

5. Types of VARIABLES
VARIABLES
Independent
the variable that is systematically manipulated by the investigator
Dependent
the variable that the investigator measures to determine the effect of the independent variable

6. Some DEFINITIONS Data Statistic Parameter
measurements that are made on the subjects of an experiment on
raw scores – original measurements
Statistic
a number calculated on sample data that quantifies a characteristic of the sample
Parameter
a number calculated on population data that quantifies a characteristic of the population

7. Example 1
For the proceeding experiments described, specify the following:
(a) population
(b) sample
(c) data collected
(d) independent variable
(e) dependent variable
(f) statistic computed

8. Example 1
(I) An educator conducts an experiment to determine whether the mode of presentation affects how well prose material is remembered. For this experiment, the educator uses several prose passages that are presented visually or auditorily. Fifty students are selected from the undergraduates attending the university at which the educator works. The students are divided into two groups of 25 students per group.

9. Example 1
The first group receives a visual presentation of the prose passages, and the second group hears the passages through an auditory presentation. At the end of their respective presentations, the subjects are asked to write down as much of the material as they can remember. The average number of words remembered by each group is calculated, and the two group averages are compared to see whether the mode of presentation had an effect.

10. Example 1
(II) A professor of gynecology at a prominent medical school wants to determine whether an experimental birth control implant has side effects on body weight and depression. A group of 5000 adult women living in a nearby city volunteers for the experiment. The gynecologist selects 100 of these women to participate in the study. Fifty of the women are assigned to group 1 and the other fifty to group 2 such that the mean body weight and the mean depression scores of each group are equal at the beginning of the experiment. Treatment conditions are the same for both groups, except that the women in group 1 are surgically implanted with the experimental birth control device, whereas the women in group 2 receive a placebo implant.

11. Example 1
Body weight and depressed mood state are measured at the beginning and end of the experiment. A standardized questionnaire designed to measure degree of depression is used for the mood state measurement. The higher the score on this questionnaire is, the more depressed the individual is. The mean body weight and the mean depression scores of each group at the end of the experiment are compared to determine whether the experimental birth control implant had an effect on these variables. To safeguard the women from unwanted pregnancy, another method of birth control that does not interact with the implant is used for the duration of the experiment.

12. Observational Studies
Scientific Research
Observational Studies
- Social Surveys
- Correlational Research
no variables are actively manipulated, hence cannot determine causality
True* Experiments
an attempt is made to determine whether changes in one variable cause changes in another variable
Statistical techniques are IMPORTANT in both kinds of research!!

13. Statistical Process

14. Main Areas of STATISTICS
Applied
Descriptive
- summary
- description
Inferential
- estimation
- prediction
Theoretical

15. Some DEFINITIONS Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
concerned with techniques that are used to describe or characterize the obtained data
e.g. plots/graphs, measures of central tendency
Inferential Statistics
involves techniques that use the obtained sample data to infer to populations
e.g. Student’s t-test, regression analysis

16. Example 2
For the following situation, identify which involved descriptive statistics and which involved inferential statistics.
(I) Suppose we were interested in determining the average IQ of the entire freshman class at a certain university. A random sample of 200 students were obtained and each was given an IQ test. It is then observed that the mean IQ of these students is 117. Based on this, the following statement was made: “We are 95% confident that the interval of 115–120 contains the mean IQ of the population.”

17. Example 2
For the following situation, identify which involved descriptive statistics and which involved inferential statistics.
(I) Suppose we were interested in determining the average IQ of the entire freshman class at a certain university. A random sample of 200 students were obtained and each was given an IQ test. It is then observed that the mean IQ of these students is 117. Based on this, the following statement was made: “We are 95% confident that the interval of 115–120 contains the mean IQ of the population.”

18. Example 2
For the following situation, identify which involved descriptive statistics and which involved inferential statistics.
(I) Suppose we were interested in determining the average IQ of the entire freshman class at a certain university. A random sample of 200 students were obtained and each was given an IQ test. It is then observed that the mean IQ of these students is 117. Based on this, the following statement was made: “We are 95% confident that the interval of 115–120 contains the mean IQ of the population.”

19. Example 2
(II) Matsumoto et al. (2009) investigated the idea that an individual’s emotional displays in a given context can be both universal and culturally variable, as they change over time. This study included pool of 68 athletes representing 35 countries from six continents. Using samples of multiple photos of these athletes during both pre- and post-competition, expressive styles were identified and found to be distributed as follows - express (24); deamplify (2); neutralize (38); qualify (1); and mask (3). Further analysis confirmed their hypothesis that athletes from relatively urban, individualistic cultures expressed their emotions more, whereas athletes from less urban, collectivistic cultures masked their emotions more.

20. Example 2
(II) Matsumoto et al. (2009) investigated the idea that an individual’s emotional displays in a given context can be both universal and culturally variable, as they change over time. This study included pool of 68 athletes representing 35 countries from six continents. Using samples of multiple photos of these athletes during both pre- and post-competition, expressive styles were identified and found to be distributed as follows - express (24); deamplify (2); neutralize (38); qualify (1); and mask (3). Further analysis confirmed their hypothesis that athletes from relatively urban, individualistic cultures expressed their emotions more, whereas athletes from less urban, collectivistic cultures masked their emotions more.

21. Example 2
(II) Matsumoto et al. (2009) investigated the idea that an individual’s emotional displays in a given context can be both universal and culturally variable, as they change over time. This study included pool of 68 athletes representing 35 countries from six continents. Using samples of multiple photos of these athletes during both pre- and post-competition, expressive styles were identified and found to be distributed as follows - express (24); deamplify (2); neutralize (38); qualify (1); and mask (3). Further analysis confirmed their hypothesis that athletes from relatively urban, individualistic cultures expressed their emotions more, whereas athletes from less urban, collectivistic cultures masked their emotions more.

22. Example 2
(III) A part of Mallett et al. (2001) investigated whether context effects undermine the accurate assessment of belonging uncertainty in junior high and high school students. To carry out the study, participants were recruited from several schools, with their age ranging from 12 to 19 years. The ethnic distribution of the participants were as follows: African American (17%); Latino/a (17%); Native American (7%); and White (59%). Based on other considerations and statistical techniques, the study group has concluded that considering one’s ethnic identification threatens sense of belonging in students of color, but not White students.

23. Example 2
(III) A part of Mallett et al. (2001) investigated whether context effects undermine the accurate assessment of belonging uncertainty in junior high and high school students. To carry out the study, participants were recruited from several schools, with their age ranging from 12 to 19 years. The ethnic distribution of the participants were as follows: African American (17%); Latino/a (17%); Native American (7%); and White (59%). Based on other considerations and statistical techniques, the study group has concluded that considering one’s ethnic identification threatens sense of belonging in students of color, but not White students.

24. Example 2
(III) A part of Mallett et al. (2001) investigated whether context effects undermine the accurate assessment of belonging uncertainty in junior high and high school students. To carry out the study, participants were recruited from several schools, with their age ranging from 12 to 19 years. The ethnic distribution of the participants were as follows: African American (17%); Latino/a (17%); Native American (7%); and White (59%). Based on other considerations and statistical techniques, the study group has concluded that considering one’s ethnic identification threatens sense of belonging in students of color, but not White students.

25. EXERCISE
In the following experiment, specify (1) the independent variable, (2) the dependent variable, (3) the sample, (4) the population, (5) the data, and (6) the statistic measured: A cognitive psychologist is interested in how retention is affected by the spacing of practice sessions. A sample of 30 seventh graders is selected from a local junior high school and divided into three groups of 10 students in each group. All students are asked to memorize a list of 15 words and are given three practice sessions, each 5 minutes long, in which to do so. Practice sessions for group 1 subjects are spaced 10 minutes apart; for group 2, 20 minutes apart; and for group 3, 30 minutes apart. All groups are given a retention test 1 hour after the last practice session. Results are recorded as the number of words correctly recalled in the test period. Mean values are computed for each group and compared.