1. Important Dates and Times
DIARY STUDY DUE: April 26 (next Thursday)
NOTE: DO include your graph and data worksheet.
DON’T include your individual diary sheets.
FINAL: Tuesday, May 8; 11:45-2:45 (NOT May 9)
Covers everything after mid-term
(Emotions and Social Judgment to
last lecture).

2. What are these people thinking?

3. Disgust as the Basis for Morals: I
Does ethical/moral sense arise from disgust?
What words used to describe immoral or unethical behavior?
Disgusting Nauseating
Revolting Left bad taste in my mouth
Turns my stomach
What words used to describe immoral or unethical people?
  Skunk Rat Louse Garbage Filth Pig

4. Disgust as Basis for Morals, II
* Common link:
-- Disgust occurs at prospect of bringing
something harmful into ones self.
-- Disgust serves to expel things that are dangerous
and that contaminate.
-- Moral revulsion serves to keep self, and social
network, “pure”, free of behaviors that corrupt
or that contaminate.

5. Why is Disgust Entertaining?

6. Emotional Management

7. James Pennebaker Inhibition and Illness Model
1. Inhibiting thoughts and feelings is stressful
2. In short term, suppression leads to physiological arousal.
3. Over the long term, suppression leads to immunocompromise.
4. The result is increased susceptibility to a wide range of illness.

8. Suppression vs. Repression
Suppression is ACTIVELY, CONSCIOUSLY hiding or not- showing arousing thoughts and/or feelings.
-- Upset in argument with boss, don't want to show it Stifling a fit of giggles in church Attracted to someone, but don't want to be obvious
Suppression is NOT repression, which is done unconsciously.
Suppression = intentionally hide thoughts/feelings from others
Repression = unconsciously hide thoughts/feelings from self

9. Let Us Suppress! For the next minute, think about WHATEVER you want.
EXCEPT
Don’t think of someone burping in class
If you DO think of someone burping in class, knock on the top of your desk.
BUT DON’T THINK OF SOMEONE BURPING!!!!
Close your eyes and start now.

10. CHALLENGE OF SUPPRESSION
Dan Wegner "White Bear" studies
-- Rebound effect Effect stronger for arousing content (sex vs. dean)

11. Serendipity and Scientific Discovery: Pennebaker’s Inhibition and Illness Hypothesis
Serendipidy: Making desirable discoveries by accident, good fortune; Finding something valuable when not looking for it.  
Communication studies:
People like groups more when they get to talk more.
Polygraph (lie detector) studies:
Liberation through confession
3. Personal Experience:
Asthma and parents; relief about marital problems; career problems through writing

12. Warren Case Study: Body Signs vs. Overt Reports
COMMENTS
TOPIC
HEART RATE
Girlfriend 77
Some disagreements about intimacy, but we are close.
College courses 71
Most have been interesting … tests another matter
Failing exams 76
It’s been hard on my ego.
Parents 84
We were a close family until divorce
Parents’ divorce
103
It was no big deal, really.
The future 79
It scares me.

13. Reviewing Clues Leading to Inhibition and Illness Hypothesis
1. People like to talk, and learn from talking about themselves.
2. Certain kinds of events create communication conflicts— want to talk but afraid to talk.
3. Response to this conflict is inhibition, which is a stressor.
4. Confronting difficult topics reduces inhibition, reduces stress.

14. Inability to Discuss Childhood Trauma
“I had always been close to my mother. If she had known what [my stepfather] was doing to me, it would have broken her heart. I wanted to tell her so much.”
“Looking back on it all, the very worst thing was that I couldn’t talk to my mother anymore. I had to keep a wall between us. If I wasn’t careful, the wall might crumble and I’d tell her everything.”
NOTE: Those who report trauma have more health problems than other groups in survey.

15. ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE LINKING TRAUMAS TO ILLNESS
Psychology Today Survey, May 1982
a. Question: Ever had a sexual trauma? b. 22% women, 10% men report trauma c. Traumas linked to ulcers, infections, heart problems d. Childhood traumas most health-debilitating. Why? Hardest to talk about.
Zale Corporation employee study
a. Interviews employees b. Those with childhood trauma most often ill c. Nature of trauma (sexual, death of parent, etc.) didn't determine illness. What did?
d. Whether or not person talked about trauma.

16. Effects of Disclosure on Health, College Survey Samples
Number Illnesses Last Year

17. Bereavement and Disclosure Study
Are all kinds of traumas equally "disclosable"? Are some kinds more likely to be kept to yourself, others easier to share?
Someone close to you dies.
What is a "socially acceptable" kind of death?
What is a "socially unacceptable" kind of death?
Pennebaker interviews people who loose spouse due to auto accident or suicide.
Predicts which group will suppress more? Predicts which group will get more illnesses?
Spouses of suicide
Spouses of suicide
Finds: NO Differences between spouses of accident/suicide
BUT: Among all survivors, those who DO disclose get sick less often

18. Pennebaker Disclosure and Health Model
Emotional suppression is hard work (Wegner studies)
Short term suppression  physiological arousal (physio studies)
Long term suppression is chronic stressor  immunocompromise
Immunocompromise  illness

19. Initial Test of the Inhibition of Health Model
Pennebaker & Beal, 1986
Subjects (n = 46) assigned to one of four writing conditions:
1. Thoughts and Feelings (Insight)
2. Emotions only (Catharsis)
3. Facts only (Suppress)
4. Trivial topics (Control)
Conditions 1-3 write about some past, negative event.
Condition 4 writes about trivial, non-emotional topic
Subjects write on four consecutive days, 15 minutes each time.

20. “Insight Writing” Instructions
“I want you to write continuously about the most upsetting or traumatic experience of your entire life. Don’t worry about spelling, grammar, or sentence structure. In your writing, describe your deepest thoughts and feelings about your experience. …. Ideally, it should be something you have not talked about with others in detail.
It is critical, however, that you let yourself go and explore those deepest emotions and thoughts that you have. Your choice of trauma for each session is up to you.

21. Types of Traumas Disclosed
Parents’ divorce: “Son, the problem with me and your
mother was having kids in the first place. Things haven’t been
the same since you and your sister’s birth”.
2. Responsibility for grandmother’s death.
3. Molestation by grandfather, at age 13.
4. Hiding sexual orientation from parents
“Family abuse, alcoholism, suicide attempts, public humiliation
were frequent topics”

22. Pennebaker & Beale (1986) Results
Immediate Moods: Thoughts & Feelings (T & F) lowest
Health Center visits over 6 months:
Thoughts & feelings = 0.5 visits
All other groups = 1.5 visits   
Long term coping (after 4 months)
T & F higher on: * Moods
* Optimism
* Self-reported health

23. Disclosure and Immunocompetence Pennebaker, Kiecolt-Glaser, & Glaser, 1988
Questions: 1. Are initial disclosure and health findings "real"? Direct evidence that disclosure improves immune functioning.
Method: Same as initial study, but: Just two groups Thoughts and Feelings vs. Control Write 20 min., over 4 days
Blood samples taken at: Day one of study Last day of writing weeks after study ends
Use "mitogen test" -- bodies that stimulate antibody production

24. Disclosure and Immunocompetence (continued) Pennebaker, Kiecolt-Glaser, & Glaser, 1988
Results: Which group produced more antibodies to mitogen? X
Thoughts and Feelings
Control group
Role of Insight: 80% of T&F writers report insight-related benefits (perspective shift, new ideas about self, etc.)
Quality of Writing: Writing that improved health was:
1. More emotional Images and analogies Clear organization: Beginning, middle, end.

25. Other Disclosure Studies Show:
Disclosure  higher T-Cell count
 improved antibody response to Epstein-Barr
 improved antibody response to Hepatitis B
Improved management of chronic illnesses:
Diabetes Asthma Other chronic illness
Cognitive benefits:
Improved short-term memory Improved grades
Effect replicated 300+ studies, by many different researchers

26. Catharsis vs. Insight Catharsis Insight
Why do people need to disclose?
Catharsis
Insight
* Emotional buildup causes stress.
* Release pent-up emotions (catharsis) releases stress.
* Language provides an outlet for venting pent up emotions.
* Uncompleted problems are emotionally arousing.
* Uncompleted tasks stay alive until finished.
* Language helps people get “closure” on unfinished business.

27. Bonanza Model of Writing and Traumatic Recovery

28. Emotional Disclosure and Interpersonal Relations
Disclosure and Forgiveness
Disclosure and Victim Blaming

29. Disclosure and Forgiveness
Betrayal—Bad. Very bad.
Violates basic beliefs
Severs social ties
Forgiveness  Less depression, anxiety; improved health
 Improved life-satisfaction; self-image
Forgiveness requires addressing underlying emotions. “Forgiveness is an emotional event.” Worthingon, 1998.
Problem: How address emotions in absence of offender?
Ben Franklin’s solution: WRITE

30. Four Experimental Conditions
Emotional Disclosure and Closeness Towards a Friend, an Acquaintance, or a Betrayer
Harber & Wenberg, 2009
Recall a Person
Acquaintance
Betrayer
Write About Person
Facts only (Suppress)
Thoughts & feelings (Disclose)
Four Experimental Conditions
1. Acquaintance / suppress Betrayer / Suppress
2. Acquaintance/ disclose Betrayer / Disclose

31. Closeness as Index of Forgiveness
HOW CLOSE DO YOU FEEL TOWARD
THE PERSON YOU WROTE ABOUT? S O
S = SELF
O = OTHER
Non-touching circles = 1; totally overlapping circles = 7
Inclusion of Other in the Self scale (IOS)
Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992.

32. Emotional Disclosure and Closeness
Towards a Betrayer vs. an Acquaintance
Harber & Wenberg, 2009
NOTE: Simple effect, Betrayer cond, is significant. Is it meaningful? Note that forgiveness is a process, not just a state. Not realistic for short writing task to change attitude from total disdain to adoration. But it can start the thaw, from which some meaningful forgiveness can be achieved. Studies 1 and 2 suggest that disclosure fosters this anti-freeze.
Perhaps effects due to considering someone important in your life—in which case disclosing should induce closeness to friend as well as betrayer.
But if due to assimilating troubling emotions, then disclosure should only affect closeness to betrayer.

33. Where There’s a Victim, There’s Victim Blaming
Rape survivors are targets of “victim blaming” which is being unfairly held responsible for one’s own misfortunes.
Blaming not restricted to rape: Victims are blamed for terminal illnesses, for victims of predatory lending, for acts of terror, for natural disasters, for poverty.
Effect of victim blaming is severe—leads to secondary victimization, which can produce anxiety, depression, PTSD.
Secondary assault: Morals, judgment, right to sympathy
Interpersonal costs: Self-silencing, distrust
Psychological costs: Self-blame, anxiety, depression, PTSD

34. Victim Blaming as Emotional Management Threatens Just World Beliefs
Victimization
Threatens Just World Beliefs
Disturbing Emotions
Blame Victim
Disclose Emotions
Seeing an innocent victim challenges JWB
This arouses upsetting emotions
Emotions motivate need to reconcile JWB with victimization: How do we do that?
Restore justice—not always possible
Revise JWB—not desirable
Reinterpret situation, i.e. blame victim. Requires little physical risk or cost, retains JWB
Emotions Abate
Beliefs Restored
Victims NOT Blamed
Emotions Abate

35. Disclosure and Victim Blaming Design
Subjects: n = 57, 77% female, age = (5.35)
Cover Story: “Time Delay and Recall”
Film Clip: The Accused (victim)
Margaret Thatcher (non-victim)
Writing Task:
Disclosers — Thoughts and feelings
Suppressers — Target’s features
Outcome Measure (1 week later)
Criticism of victim / non-victim
(poor judgment, inept, irresponsible, immoral).

36. Sample Disclosures Disclose Suppress Victim Disclose Suppress
The movie made me incredibly nauseous and freaked out
Oh my Jesus, that was horrible!
Suppress
There was a girl at the bar drunk and was by herself ... .
There is music playing in a dark bar
Victim
Disclose
...some woman named Maggie fighting about the budget
Note that the “Victim/Suppress” felt as bad as the “Victim/Disclose” subjects, but their experiences were bottled up.
Suppress
The video...was about a woman named Maggie
Maggie wanted a fair deal
Non-Victim

37. Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
Criticism of Victim vs. Non-Victim, Due to Emotional Disclosure: Study 1
Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
No diff for disclosure, victim vs non victim
Diff for suppression; victim criticized more.

38. Disclosure and Victim Blaming, Study 2
1. Study 1 reliable?
2. Does disclosure affect only victims, or anyone involved in disturbing assault—victimizers and victims?
3. Does disclosure affect blaming by men and women equally?
Subjects: n = 90, 49% female, age = (5.63)
Design: Same as Study 1, except:
1. Adversary blaming: The men: Aggravated event, made event worse, fostered event, got carried away, were bad
2. Gender effects: Equal numbers men/women per condition
No diff for disclosure, victim vs non victim
Diff for suppression; victim criticized more.

39. Blaming of Victim vs. Non-Victim, and Emotional Disclosure: Study Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
No diff for disclosure, victim vs non victim
Diff for suppression; victim criticized more.

40. Blaming of Victim vs. Assailant, Due to Emotional Disclosure: Study 2 Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
No diff for disclosure, victim vs non victim
Diff for suppression; victim criticized more. AND NOTE: Victim blamed nearly as much as her attackers.
This is important; means that disclosure addresses emotion related to just-world belief threat.
Victim’s “crime” is that her travail disrupts our sense of a just world; a bad think happened to a good person. Accepting this disruptive fact jeopardizes our own equanimity. Blaming the victim—seeing her as culpable for her own mistreatment redeems just world beliefs. We therefore need to blame her to recover our peace of mind. Disclosure resolves this threat; blaming abates.
Perpetrators present no threat to just world beliefs. A just world can have bad people—and earthquakes and malaria and other bad things. Such things are certainly threatening; to safety, health. But they do not represent a threat to just world beliefs. So disclosure should not change our attitudes to them, and as this result shows, disclosure does not amend attitudes to victimizers, but only to victims.
The psychological threat these things create is if they affect the underserving.
Perpetrator does not threaten just world beliefs—there is no psychological conundrum in blaming perps; they are bad, deserve to be blamed.
. Just world admits to bad people, bad events. Just world is not free of hazard, only unjust hazard. Innocent victim, where bad thing happens to good person, violates principle of justice. This is the threat that victim presents, and why victim is blam

41. Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
Blaming of Victim Due to Emotional Disclosure and Participants’ Gender: Study 2
Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015
No diff for disclosure, victim vs non victim
Diff for suppression; victim criticized more.
Means that the process of emotional disclosure affects social judgments of men the same as women.

42. Social Implications of Disclosure and Victim Blaming
Jury Deliberations
Sequestration ≈
The Accused/Suppression
Victim Counselling
Disclosure opportunities for
victim’s support base may
reduce victim blaming.