Çmimi në marketingun ndërkombëtar

Çmimi në marketingun ndërkombëtar
Marketingu Ndërkombëtar Çmimi në marketingun ndërkombëtar Ligjerata 8

Konsideratat Ndërkombëtare të Çmimeve
Çmimi është një nga çështjet më kritike dhe komplekse në fushën e marketingut ndërkombëtar. Çmimi është e vetmja nga marketing miksi si instrument që krijon të ardhura. Të gjitha elementet e tjera rezultojnë me shpenzime. Politika e çmimit global të një kompanie mund të ndihmoj ose prish përpjekjet e kompanisë për një zgjerim të jashtëm. Kompanitë multinacionale gjithashtu përballen me sfidat se si të koordinojnë çmimet e tyre nëpër vende të ndryshme.

Çka ndikon në strategjinë e vendosjes së çmimeve?
© 2005 Prentice Hall

Strategjite e çmimit ndërkombëtar
Faktorët e mbrendshëm të kompanisw Fitimi Kostot e transportit Tarifat Tatimet Kostot e prodhimit Kostot e distribuimit Forcat e tregut Nivelet e tw ardhurav Konkurenca Kultura e konsumatorwve Faktorwt e ambientit Kursi valutor Norma e inflacionit Kontrolli i çmimit Regulattvat Dimenzionet Analitike Strategjite e çmimit Vendimmarrja Çmime sipas tregjeve çmim tw njejtw Çështjw menaxheriale Çmimi i transferimit Valutat e huaja Importet paralele Tregjet e zeza Çmim i eksportit Strategjitë globale të çmimeve Financimi mi transakcioneve Reziku Burimi i financimit Bnaka komerciale Qeveritw Transakcionet jo kesh: Trampa Vendimmarrja © 2005 Prentice Hall Source: Jeannet & Hennessey, 2001

Krahasimet per çmimin ndërkombëtar Çmimet per një Golf Volkswagen *
BRITANI $13,040 FINLANDË 8,290 FRANCË 10,510 GJERMANI 11,040 ITALI 10,690

Vendosja e Cmimeve nga Kompanitë

Break even analysis

Faktorët që konsiderohen gjatë vendosjes së Cmimeve
Kostot e kompanisë dhe produkteve Vendosja e një cmimi duke llogaritur kostot e prodhimit

Llojet e kostove Kosoto fikse Kostot variabile Kostot totale

Kostot fikse janë kostot që nuk ndryshojnë me prodhimin ose nivelin e shitjeve Renta Nxemja Interesi Pagat e menaxhmentit

Perspektiva Globale– Lufta e çmimeve
Vendosja e çmimit të drejtë për një produkt apo shërbim Çelësi i suksesit apo dështimit Çmimi i një oferte Duhet të reflektojnë cilësinë dhe vlerën që konsumatori percepton në produkt Globalizimi i tregjeve botërore Intensifikon konkurrencën midis kompanive shumëkombëshe dhe atyre vendore Përgjegjësia e përgjegjësitë të marketingut Për të vendosur dhe kontrolluar çmimin aktual të mallrave në tregjet e ndryshme me variablave tw ndryshwm për t'u analizuar Setting the right price for a product or service can be the key to success or failure. Even when the international marketer produces the right product, promotes it correctly, and initiates the proper channel of distribution, the effort fails if the product is not properly priced. An offering’s price must reflect the quality and value the consumer perceives in the product. Of all the tasks facing the international marketer, determining what price to charge is one of the most difficult. It is further complicated when the company sells its product to customers in different country markets. As the globalization of world markets continues, competition intensifies among multinational and home-based companies. All are seeking a solid competitive position so they can prosper as markets reach full potential. The competition for the diaper market between Kimberly-Clark, P&G, and the smaller companies illustrates how price becomes increasingly important as a competitive tool and how price competition changes the structure of a market. Whether exporting or managing overseas operations, the manager’s responsibility is to set and control the actual price of goods in different markets in which different sets of variables are to be found: different tariffs, costs, attitudes, competition, currency fluctuations, and methods of price quotation.

Politika e Çmimeve Çmimi, si një instrument aktiv të përmbushjes se objektivave të marketingut Kompania përdor çmimin për të arritur një objektiv të veçantë, ROI, hisen e tregut, etj. Çmimi si një element statik në një vendim të biznesit Eksportimi vetëm i inventarit te tepërt Vendos prioritet të ulët në biznesin e huaj Sheh shitjet e eksportit si kontribute pasive ndaj vëllimit të shitjes In general, price decisions are viewed two ways: pricing as an active instrument of accomplishing marketing objectives, or pricing as a static element in a business decision. If prices are viewed as an active instrument, the company sets prices (rather than following market prices) to achieve a specific objectives, whether targeted returns on profit, targeted market shares, or some other specific goals. The company that follows the second approach, pricing as a static element, probably exports only excess inventory, places a low priority on foreign business, and views its export sales as passive contributions to sales volume.

Politika e Çmimeve Importet paralele
Zhvillohet kur importuesit blejnë produkte nga shpërndarësit në një vend dhe i shesin shpërndarëseve në një tjetër vend të cilët nuk janë pjesë e sistemit të rregullt të rrjetit të shpërndarjes Ndodhin kur dallimet e çmimeve janë më të mëdha sesa kostoja e transportit midis dy tregjeve Problem i madh për kompanitë farmaceutike . Besides having to meet price competition country by country and product by product, companies have to guard against competition with their own subsidiaries or branches. Because of the different prices possible in different country markets, a product sold in one country may be exported to another and undercut the prices charged in that country. Parallel imports develop when importers buy products from distributors in one country and sell them in another to distributors who are not part of the manufacturer’s regular distribution system. This practice is lucrative when wide margins exist between prices for the same products in different countries. A variety of conditions can create a profitable opportunity for a parallel market. The possibility of a parallel market occurs whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets. In Europe, because of different taxes and competitive price structures, prices for the same product vary between countries. Pharmaceutical companies face this problem in Italy, Greece, and Spain because of price caps imposed on prescription drugs in those countries. Exclusive distribution, a practice often used by companies to maintain high retail margins in order to encourage retailers to provide extra service to customers, to stock large assortments, or to maintain the exclusive-quality image of a product, can create a favorable condition for parallel importing. Perfume and designer brands such as Gucci and Cartier are especially prone to gray markets.

New York Times, April 14, 2004, pages A1, c14, Gardiner Harris, “Price of AIDS Drugs Intensifies the Debate on Imports.”

Konceptet bazike të çmimit
Menaxheri Global duhet të zhvillojë sisteme dhe politika që adresojnë: Dyshemetë e çmimeve Tavanet e çmimeve Çmimet optimale Duhet të jetë në përputhje me mundësitë globale dhe kufizimet Whether dealing with a single home country market or multiple country markets, marketing managers must develop pricing objectives as well as strategies for achieving those objectives. The overall goal may be to contribute to an internal performance measure such as unit sales, market share, or return on investment. However, a number of pricing issues are unique to global marketing. This chapter will cover many of these issues © 2005 Prentice Hall

Objektivat globale të çmimeve dhe strategjitë
Menaxherët duhet të përcaktojë objektivat për çmimet Njësi shitjesh Pjesa e tregut Kthimi nga investimi Ata duhet pastaj të zhvillojnë strategji për të arritur këto objektiva Penetrimi përmes çmimeve Çmimi Ajkë

Çmimi ajk-Market Skimming
Vendosja e një çmimi premium Mund të ndodhë në fazën e prezantimit të produktit nga cikli jetësor të produktit By setting a deliberately high price, demand is limited to innovators and early adopters who are willing and able to pay the price. When the product enters the growth stage of the life cycle and competition increases, manufacturers start to cut prices. This strategy has been used consistently in the consumer electronics industry; for example, when Sony introduced the first consumer VCRs in the 1970s, the retail price exceeded $1,000. The same was true when compact disc players were launched in the early 1980s. Within a few years, prices for these products dropped well below $500. This pattern was evident in the fall of 1998, when HDTV sets went on sale in the United States with prices starting at about $7,000. This price both maximizes revenue on limited volume and matches demand to available supply. Sony Ad. for camcorders © 2005 Prentice Hall

Compact disc players 1980. ne fillim me shtrenjte se sa $500.
Sony –VCRs 1970s--$1,000 Compact disc players ne fillim me shtrenjte se sa $500. 1998 HDTV ne SHBA cmimi fillestar reth $7,000. © 2005 Prentice Hall

Penetrimi me anë të çmimit
Tarifimi me një çmim të ulët në mënyrë që të depërtojnë në treg shpejt Përshtatshme për të ngop tregun para imitimit nga konkurrentët When Sony was developing the Walkman in 1979, initial plans called for a retail price of ¥50,000 ($249) to achieve breakeven. However, it was felt that a price of ¥35,000 ($170) was necessary to attract the all-important youth market segment. After the engineering team conceded that they could trim costs to achieve breakeven volume at a price of ¥40,000, Chairman Akio Morita pushed them further and insisted on a retail price of ¥33,000 ($165) to commemorate Sony’s 33rd anniversary. At that price, even if the initial production run of 60,000 units sold out, the company would lose $35 per unit. It should be noted that a first-time exporter is unlikely to use penetration pricing. The reason is simple: Penetration pricing often means that the product may be sold at a loss for a certain length of time. Many companies, especially those in the food industry, launch new products that are not innovative enough to qualify for patent protection. When this occurs, penetration pricing is recommended as a means of achieving market saturation before competitors copy the product. 1979 Sony Walkman © 2005 Prentice Hall

Çmimi Ajk dhe Penetrues
Njësi shitje Fitimi Cmimi Penetrues Cmimi Penetrues Cmimi ajk Cmimi ajk Koha në tregun lokal Koha në tregun lokal

Produkte shoqëruese Produkte të cilave shitja është e varur mbi shitjen e produktit primar Video lojërat janë të varur mbi shitjen e lojë konsol The biggest profits in the video industry come from sales of game software; thus, even though prices are dropping for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube, sales of hit titles are generating substantial revenues and profits. This illustrates the notion of companion products: AOL software is worthless without a personal computer, a modem, and a telephone line; a video game player is worthless without games, a DVD player is worthless without movies, a razor handle is worthless without blades, a cellular phone is worthless without a calling plan, and so on. © 2005 Prentice Hall

8 Pyetje për kompaninë A pasqyronë çmimi cilësinë e produktit?
A është çmimi i caktuar konkurrent për kushtet e tregut? A duhet firma të ndjek penetrim në treg, ajkën e tregut, ose objektiva tjera çmimi? Çfarë lloj zbritjeje dhe ndihmë duhet firma të ofrojë klientëve të saj ndërkombëtare? A duhet çmimet të ndryshojnë me segmentin e tregut? Cilat opsione të çmimit janë në dispozicion nëse shpenzimet e firmës rriten ose ulen? A është kërkesa elastike apo joelastike në tregun ndërkombëtar? A ka gjasa që çmimet e firmës të shikohen nga qeveria e vendit pritës si të arsyeshme ose shfrytëzuese? A paraqesin ligjet antidumping ne vend të huaj një problem? © 2005 Prentice Hall

Dumpingu Në tregtinë ndërkombëtare, kjo ndodh kur një vend eksporton një sasi të konsiderueshme të mallrave në një vend tjetër me çmime shumë më të ulëta se në tregun e brendshëm pricing_policy%29 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Mallrat gri të tregut Produktet që eksportohen nga një vend në tjetrin, ku shiten nga persona të paautorizuar ose organizata. Ndodh kur produkti është në furnizim të paktë, kur prodhuesit përdorin strategjinë e ajkës (skimming) në disa tregje, dhe kur këto mallra janë subjekt të çmimit rritës.

Trampa- Barter Forma më pak komplekse dhe më e vjetër dypalëshe, pa prezence te parave. Një shkëmbim i drejtpërdrejtë i mallrave apo shërbimeve në mes të dy palëve

Çmimi global: Tre alternativa
Alternativa e zgjerimit Alternativa e adaptimit Alternativa gjeocentrike

Zgjerimi Etnocentrike
Çmimi për një njësi është i njejtë pa marre parasysh se ku gjendet blerësi Importuesi duhet t’i mbaj taksat e importit dhe rrugës Dështon për t’u përgjigjur çdo tregu kombëtar

Çmimi etnocentrik Çmimi etnocentrik Një çmim global, në një monedhë
PROS: jo tregti të zezë CONS: jo adaptim lokal $

Adaptimi Policentrike
I lejon menaxherët e filialit ose shpërndarësit e pavarur për të vendosur çmimin si ata mendojnë se është më e dëshirueshme në rrethanat e tyre E ndjeshme ndaj kushteve të tregut, por krijon potencial për marketing gri

Çmimi policentrik Çmim policentrik Çmime lokale, në monedhë lokale
PROS: e adaptuar lokalisht CONS: jo e kordinuar, më tepër tregti e zezë € € Y $ P P k k $ Y

Gjeocentrike Pranon se disa faktorë janë të rëndësishëm për vendimin e çmimeve Kostot lokale Nivelet e të ardhurave Konkurrenca Strategjia Lokale e marketingut

Çmimi gjeocentrik Çmimi gjeocentrik
Një çmim për çdo regjion , monedhë e perbashket regjionale PROS: pak kordinim, pak tregti të zezë, pak adaptim CONS: jo e adaptuar lokalisht Y € $

Fluktuimi i monedhave Return
In global marketing, the task of setting prices is complicated by fluctuating exchange rates. Currency fluctuations can create significant problems and opportunities for the classic international company that exports from the home country. Management faces different decision situations, depending on whether currencies in key markets have strengthened or weakened relative to the home-country currency. Return © 2005 Prentice Hall

Sjellja konkurruese Nëse konkurrentët nuk rregullojë çmimet e tyre në përgjigje të kostove në rritje, është vështirë për ju si kompani për të rregulluar çmimet për të ruajtur kufijtë operativ. Nëse konkurrentët prodhojnë apo ndihmohen nga një vend me kosto të ulët, kjo mund të jetë e nevojshme për të ulur çmimet për të qëndruar konkurrues.

Përdorimi i “Sourcing” si vegël strategjike për vendosjen e çmimit
Kompanitë mund të zhvendosin pjesë të prodhimeve të caktuara nëpër vende të ndryshme me qellim të mbajtjes së shpenzimeve të ulëta dhe mbajtjen e çmimeve konkurruese A mundeni të qëndroni konkurruese duke u fokusur në qëndrim lokal?

Shkallëzimi i çmimeve (Price escalation)
Kostot e eksportit Shkallëzimi i çmimeve Taksat, tarifat, dhe kostot administrative Taksat përfshijnë tarifat Tarifa - Tarifw e ngarkuar kur mallrat janë sjellë në një vend nga një vend tjetër Kostot administrative Përfshirja e licencave të eksportit dhe importit Dokumentet tjera Aranzhimet fizike për marrjen e produktit nga porti i hyrjes deri te blerësi People traveling abroad often are surprised to find goods that are relatively inexpensive in their home country priced outrageously high in other countries. Because of the natural tendency to assume that such prices are a result of profiteering, manufacturers often resolve to begin exporting to crack these new, profitable foreign markets only to find that, in most cases, the higher prices reflect the higher costs of exporting. Excess profits exist in some international markets, but generally the cause of the disproportionate difference in price between the exporting country and the importing country, here termed price escalation, is the added costs incurred as a result of exporting products from one country to another. Specifically, the term relates to situations in which ultimate prices are raised by shipping costs, insurance, packing, tariffs, longer channels of distribution, larger middlemen margins, special taxes, administrative costs, and exchange rate fluctuations. Taxes and tariffs affect the ultimate consumer price for a product; in most instances, the consumer bears the burden of both. A tariff, or duty, is a special form of taxation. Like other forms of taxes, a tariff may be levied for the purpose of protecting a market or for increasing government revenue. A tariff is a fee charged when goods are brought into a country from another country. In addition to taxes and tariffs, a variety of administrative costs are directly associated with exporting and importing a product. Export and import licenses, other documents, and the physical arrangements for getting the product from port of entry to the buyer’s location mean additional costs. Although such costs are relatively small, they add to the overall cost of exporting.

Shkallëzimi i çmimeve Inflacioni Deflacioni
Në vendet me inflacion të shpejtë dhe ndryshim të këmbimit, çmimi i shitjes duhet të jetë i lidhur me koston e mallrave të shitura. Deflacioni Në një treg deflacioni, është thelbësore për një kompani për të mbajtur çmime të ulëta dhe për të rritur vlerën e markës për të fituar besimin e konsumatorëve Luhatjet e kursit të këmbimit Askush nuk është mjaft i sigurt në vlerën e ardhshme tw monedhës Transaksionet janë gjithnjë duke shkruar në terma të monedhës kombëtare të kompanisë shitëse In countries with rapid inflation or exchange variation, the selling price must be related to the cost of goods sold and the cost of replacing the items. Goods often are sold below their cost of replacement plus overhead, and sometimes are sold below replacement cost. In these instances, the company would be better off not to sell the products at all. In a deflationary market, it is essential for a company to keep prices low and raise brand value to win the trust of consumers. Whether deflation or inflation, an exporter has to place emphasis on controlling price escalation. At one time, world trade contracts could be easily written because payment was specified in a relatively stable currency. The American dollar was the standard and all transactions could be related to the dollar. Now that all major currencies are floating freely relative to one another, no one is quite sure of the future value of any currency. Increasingly, companies are insisting that transactions be written in terms of the vendor company’s national currency, and forward hedging is becoming more common. If exchange rates are not carefully considered in long-term contracts, companies find themselves unwittingly giving 15 to 20 percent discounts. The added cost incurred by exchange rate fluctuations on a day-to-day basis must be taken into account, especially where there is a significant time lapse between signing the order and delivery of the goods. Exchange rate differentials mount up.

Shkallëzimi i çmimeve Ndryshimi i vlerave të monedhës
Ndryshimi i vlerave të monedhës së një vendi relative ndaj valutave të tjera Çmimi nga kostoja-plus Ndërmjetësi dhe kostot e transportit Diversiteti i kanaleve Marketingu i pazhvilluar dhe infrastruktura e kanalit të shpërndarjes When the value of the dollar is weak relative to the buyer’s currency (i.e., it takes fewer units of the foreign currency to buy a dollar), companies generally employ cost-plus pricing. To remain price competitive when the dollar is strong (i.e., when it takes more units of the foreign currency to buy a dollar), companies must find ways to offset the higher price caused by currency values. In addition to risks from exchange rate variations, other risks result from the changing values of a country’s currency relative to other currencies, such as consumers’ perceptions of value. Channel length and marketing patterns vary widely, but in most countries channels are longer and middleman margins higher than is customary in the United States. The diversity of channels used to reach markets and the lack of standardized middleman markups leave many producers unaware of the ultimate price of a product. Besides channel diversity, the fully integrated marketer operating abroad faces various unanticipated costs because marketing and distribution channel infrastructures are underdeveloped in many countries.

Qasje për lehtësimin e shkallëzimit të çmimit
Ulja e kostos së mallrave Prodhimi në një vend të tretë Eliminimi nga karakteristika të kushtueshme funksionale Ulja e cilësisë së përgjithshme të produktit Zvogëlimin e tarifave Riklasifikimi i produkteve në një klasifikim të ndryshëm, dhe më të ulët doganor Ndrysho produktin për t'u kualifikuar për një normë më të ulët brenda klasifikimit tarifor Ripaketimi Three methods used to reduce costs and lower price escalation are lowering cost of goods, lowering tariffs, and lowering distribution costs. One of the important reasons for manufacturing in a third country is an attempt to reduce manufacturing costs and thus price escalation. The impact can be profound if you consider that the hourly cost of skilled labor in a Mexican maquiladora is less than $3 an hour including benefits, compared with more than $10 in the United States. Eliminating costly functional features or even lowering overall product quality is another method of minimizing price escalation. When tariffs account for a large part of price escalation, as they often do, companies seek ways to lower the rate. Some products can be reclassified into a different, and lower, customs classification. An American company selling data communications equipment in Australia persuaded the Australian government to change the classification for the type of products the company sells from “computer equipment” (25 percent tariff) to “telecommunication equipment” (3 percent tariff). Like many products, this company’s products could be legally classified under either category. Besides having a product reclassified into a lower tariff category, it may be possible to modify a product to qualify for a lower tariff rate within a tariff classification. There are often differential rates between fully assembled, ready-to-use products and those requiring some assembly, further processing, the addition of locally manufactured component parts, or other processing that adds value to the product and can be performed within the foreign country. Repackaging also may help to lower tariffs. Tequila entering the United States in containers of one gallon or less carries a duty of $2.27 per proof gallon; larger containers are assessed at only $1.25. If the cost of rebottling is less than $1.02 per proof gallon, and it probably would be, considerable savings could result.

Approaches to Lessening Price Escalation
Qasje për lehtësimin e shkallëzimit të çmimit Approaches to Lessening Price Escalation Uljen e kostove të shpërndarjes Kanale më të shkurtra Reduktimin ose eliminimi i ndërmjetësve Përdorimi i zonave të tregtisë së jashtme për të ulur përshkallëzimin e çmimeve Krijimi i zonave të tregtisë së lirë (FTZs) Shtyn pagesën e detyrimeve dhe tarifave Damping Përdorimi i çmimeve margjinale (e ndryshueshme) kostos Shitja e mallrave në vend të huaj nën çmimin e mallrave të njëjta në treg në shtëpi Shorter channels can help keep prices under control. Designing a channel that has fewer middlemen may lower distribution costs by reducing or eliminating middleman markup. Besides eliminating markups, fewer middlemen may mean lower overall taxes. Some countries have established foreign or free trade zones (FTZs) or free ports to facilitate international trade. More than 300 of these facilities operate throughout the world, storing or processing imported goods. An FTZ is, in essence, a tax-free enclave and not considered part of the country as far as import regulations are concerned. When an item leaves an FTZ and is imported officially into the host country of the FTZ, all duties and regulations are imposed. A logical outgrowth of a market policy in international business is goods priced competitively at widely differing prices in various markets. Marginal (variable) cost pricing, as discussed earlier, is a way prices can be reduced to stay within a competitive price range. The market and economic logic of such pricing policies can hardly be disputed, but the practices often are classified as dumping and are subject to severe penalties and fines. Various economists define dumping differently. One approach classifies international shipments as dumped if the products are sold below their cost of production. Another approach characterizes dumping as selling goods in a foreign market below the price of the same goods in the home market.

Tregtia e Kushtezuar (Countertrade)
Një mjet që çdo marketer ndërkombëtar duhet të jetë gati për të punësuar Shpesh i jep kompanisë një avantazh konkurrues Rusia dhe PepsiCo Tregtimi i Vodka dhe verës për pije joalkolike Shkëmbim ose (countertrade) ende përbënë midis 20 dhe 40 për qind të të gjitha transaksioneve në ekonomitë e ish-bllokut sovjetik Countertrade is a pricing tool that every international marketer must be ready to employ, and the willingness to accept a countertrade will often give the company a competitive advantage. The challenges of countertrade must be viewed from the same perspective as all other variations in international trade. Marketers must be aware of which markets will likely require countertrades, just as they must be aware of social customs and legal requirements.. One of the earliest barter arrangements occurred between Russia and PepsiCo before the ruble was convertible and before most companies were trading with Russia. PepsiCo wanted to beat Coca-Cola into the Russian market. The only way possible was for PepsiCo to be willing to accept vodka (sold under the brand name Stolichnaya) from Russia and bottled wines (sold under the brand name of Premiat) from Romania to finance Pepsi-Cola bottling plants in those countries. PepsiCo dominates the cola market in Russia and all the former Soviet republics in part because of its exclusive countertrade agreement with Russia. After the Soviet Union was dismembered, the Russian economy crashed and most of the Russian payment system broke down into barter operations. Truckloads of aspirin were swapped by one company, then traded for poultry, which in turn was bartered for lumber, in turn to be exchanged for X-ray equipment from Kazakhstan—all to settle debts. Many of these transactions involved regional electricity companies that were owed money by virtually everyone. Although cash may be the preferred method of payment, countertrades are an important part of trade with eastern Europe, the newly independent states, China, and, to a varying degree, some Latin American and African nations. Barter or countertrades still constitute between 20 and 40 percent of all transaction in the economies of the former Soviet bloc. Corporate debts to suppliers, payment and services, even taxes—all have a noncash component or are entirely bartered. Today, an international company must include in its market-pricing tool kit some understanding of countertrading.

Çmimi i administruar Mund të përdorin marrëveshjet formale Kartelet
Kompani të ndryshme qe prodhojne produkte apo shërbime të ngjashme punojnë së bashku Kontrollimi i tregjeve për llojet e mallrave dhe shërbimeve që ata prodhojnë Mund të përdorin marrëveshjet formale Për të vendosur çmimet Vendosja e niveleve të prodhimit dhe shitjes për vendet pjesëmarrëse Alokimi i territoreve të tregut Mund të marrë përsipër funksionin e tërë e shitjes shembull : OPEC Administered pricing is an attempt to establish prices for an entire market. Such prices may be arranged through the cooperation of competitors, through national, state, or local governments, or by international agreement. A cartel exists when various companies producing similar products or services work together to control markets for the types of goods and services they produce. The cartel association may use formal agreements to set prices, establish levels of production and sales for the participating companies, allocate market territories, and even redistribute profits. In some instances, the cartel organization itself takes over the entire selling function, sells the goods of all the producers, and distributes profits. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is probably the best-known international cartel. Its power in controlling the price of oil resulted from the percentage of oil production it controlled. A lesser-known cartel, but one that has a direct impact on international trade, is the shipping cartel that exists among the world’s shipping companies. Every two weeks about 20 shipping-line managers gather for their usual meeting to set rates on tens of billions of dollars of cargo. They do not refer to themselves as a cartel but rather operate under such innocuous names as “The Trans-Atlantic Conference Agreement.” Regardless of the name, they set the rates on about 70 percent of the cargo shipped between the United States and northern Europe. The De Beers company is one of the world’s largest cartels and, for all practical purposes, it controls most of the world’s diamonds and thus is able to maintain artificially high prices for diamonds.

Çmimi i administruar Qeveria ndikon ne çmim Përcakton kufijtë
Vë çmimet dysheme ose tavan Kufizon ndryshimet e çmimeve Konkurron në treg Ofron subvencione Companies doing business in foreign countries encounter a number of different types of government price setting. To control prices, governments may establish margins, set prices and floors or ceilings, restrict price changes, compete in the market, grant subsidies, and act as a purchasing monopsony or selling monopoly.

Faktorët që ndikojnë në politikat e çmimeve
Strategjia e biznesit Ambienti konkurues Kostoja e të bërurit biznes Pricing policies directly affect the size of the revenues earned by a firm. The policies also serve as an important strategic weapon by allowing the firm to shape the competitive environment in which it does business. Both domestic and international firms must strive to develop pricing strategies that will produce profitable operations, but the task facing an international firm is more complex than that facing a purely domestic firm. To begin with, a firm’s costs of doing business vary widely by country. Differences in transportation charges and tariffs cause the landed price of goods to vary by country. Differences in distribution practices also affect the final price the end customer pays. Exchange rate fluctuations also can create pricing problems. If an exporter’s home currency rises in value, the exporter must choose between maintaining its prices in the home currency (which makes its goods more expensive in the importing country) and maintaining its prices in the host currency (which cuts its profit margins by lowering the amount of home country currency it receives for each unit sold). Luhatjet e kursit të këmbimit 16-46 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Politikat e Çmimeve Politika standarde e çmimit Çmimi sipas
tregjeve Dy nivele të çmimeve An international firm following a geocentric approach to international marketing will adopt a standard price policy, whereby the firm charges the same price for its products and services regardless of where they are sold or the nationality of the customer. Firms that sell goods which are easily tradable and transportable often adopt this pricing approach out of necessity. An international firm that follows an ethnocentric marketing approach will use a two-tiered pricing policy, whereby the firm sets one price for all its domestic sales and a second price for all its international sales. A firm that adopts a two-tiered pricing policy commonly allocates to domestic sales all accounting charges associated with research and development, administrative overhead, capital depreciation, and so on. The firm then can establish a uniform foreign sales price without having to worry about covering these costs. Two-tiered pricing often is used by domestic firms just beginning to internationalize. An international firm that follows a polycentric approach to international marketing will use a market pricing policy. Market pricing is the most complex of the three pricing policies and the one most commonly adopted. A firm utilizing market pricing customizes its prices on a market-by-market basis to maximize its profits in each market. 16-47 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Rreziku nga politika çmimit nga tregu
Ankesa kundër dumpingut Dëmtimi i emrit të brandit Zhvillimi i tregut gray A market pricing policy, however, can expose a firm to complaints about dumping as well as to three other risks: (1) damage to its brand name, (2) development of a gray market for its products, and (3) consumer resentment against discriminatory prices. The firm needs to ensure that the prices it charges in one market do not damage the brand image it has carefully nurtured in other markets. A firm that follows a market pricing policy also risks the development of gray markets for its products as a result of arbitrage. A gray market is a market that results when products are imported into a country legally but outside the normal channels of distribution authorized by the manufacturer. (This phenomenon also is known as parallel importing.) A gray market may develop when the price in one market is sufficiently lower than the price the firm charges in another market that entrepreneurs can buy the good in the lower-price market and resell it profitably in the higher-price market. Thus, the firm that has large price differences among markets is vulnerable to having these differentials undercut by gray markets. Gray markets frequently arise when firms fail to adjust local prices after major fluctuations in exchange rates. A third danger lies in consumer resentment. Consumers in the high-priced country may feel they are being gouged by such pricing policies. Estee Lauder, for example, charges $40 for Clinique facial soap in Tokyo; the same soap sells for only $10 in the United States. Pakënaqësia e konsumatorit 16-48 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Çmimi në marketingun ndërkombëtar

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