1. Functional theories of translation
LESSON 5

2. Functionalism in translation
The 1970s-1980s saw the emergence, in Germany, of a functionalist and communicative approach to the study of translation
Katharina Reiss’s work on text typology
Hans J. Vermeer’s skopos theory
Christiane Nord’s further work on text-analysis model

3. Katharina Reiss’s text types (1/5)
KATHARINA REISS Texttypen, Übersetzungstypen und die Beurteilung von Übersetzungen (1977)
Katharina Reiss saw the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved
TEXT-LEVEL EQUIVALENCE
Reiss moved from the “Organon model” by Karl Bühler (1934) that defined the three communicative functions according to which linguistic communication can be described:
Informative function
Expressive function
Appellative function  that she will call “operative”

4. Katharina Reiss’s text types (2/5)
Reiss links these functions to the corresponding language “dimensions” and to the text types or communicative situations in which they are used
(Munday, 2001: 112)

5. Katharina Reiss’s text types (3/5)
For each text type, Reiss gives examples of text varieties (Textsorte) associated with them… which we would now call genres 7 (Munday, 2001: 113)

6. Katharina Reiss’s text types (4/5)
According to Reiss, an encyclopaedia (reference work) is definitely informative – and so focused on the content – while a poem is highly expressive – and therefore focused on the form – while ads are the most obvious operative type of texts.
On the contrary, a tourist brochure is half-way between being informative, operative and expressive; satire is half-way between expressive and operative but not very informative; and a biography is both informative and expressive but not operative.

7. Katharina Reiss’s text types (5/5)
The transmission of the predominant function of the ST is the determining factor by which the TT is judged (Reiss, 1976: 20) A specific translation method for every text type INFORMATIVE TEXT  “plain prose”, without redundancy and with the use of explicitation EXPRESSIVE TEXT  “identifying method”, trying to transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST OPERATIVE TEXT  “adaptive method”, the TT should produce the desired response in the TT receiver

8. Reiss’s Instruktionen
INSTRUCTION CRITERIA to assess the adequacy of a TT
(with varying importance according to the text type!)
LINGUISTIC COMPONENTS
Semantic equivalence
Lexical equivalence
Grammatical and stylistic features
NON – LINGUISTIC COMPONENTS
Situation
Subject field
Time and place
Receiver
Sender
“affective implication” (irony, emotion, etc.)

9. Criticism to Reiss’s text typology
Despite the importance of Reiss’s work in moving translation theory towards a consideration of the communicative function of the translation…
…there have been a number of criticisms:
Why only three language functions?
Are we sure that we can easily apply the translation methods she proposed to real text in such an unambiguous way?
Text types can really be differentiated according to their primary function?
The translation methods employed also depend on external factors, such as the translator’s own role and purpose, or socio-cultural pressures.

10. The target text – called the translatum – has to be fit for PURPOSE
Skopos Theory (1/5)
KATHARINA REISS & HANS J. VERMEER Grundlegung einer allgemeine Translationstheorie (1984)
SKOPOS  Greek word for “purpose”, introduced in TS by Vermeer to identify the purpose of a translation and the action of translating
The target text – called the translatum – has to be fit for PURPOSE
It has to be “functionally adequate”, therefore knowing why a ST is to be translated and what the function of the TT will be is crucial for the translator
(Munday, 2001: 122)

11. Skopos Theory (2/5)
Vermeer and Reiss aimed for a general translation theory for all texts
SKOPOS THEORY’S RULES:
A translatum (TT) is determined by its skopos
A TT is an offering of information (Informationsangebot) in a TC and TL concerning an offering of information in a TC and TL
A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way
A TT must be internally coherent
A TT must be coherent with the ST
The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating
(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 119)

12. Skopos Theory (3/5)
RULE 2 – “A TT is an offering of information in a TC and TL concerning an offering of information in a TC and TL” – it basically relates the ST and TT to their function in their linguistic and cultural contexts RULE 3 – “A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way” – the function of the translatum in its target culture is not necessarily the same as in the source culture

13. Skopos Theory (4/5)
RULE 4 and 5 – “A TT must be internally coherent” and “A TT must be coherent with the ST” - concern how the translation has to be judged, that is, on its FUNCTIONAL ADEQUACY
RULE 4 – COHERENCE RULE
The TT must be translated in such a way that it makes sense for the TT receivers, given the circumstances, knowledge and needs
RULE 5 – FIDELITY RULE
There must be coherence between the translatum and the ST or, more specifically, between: 1) the ST information received by the translator; 2) the interpretation the translator makes of this information; 3) the information that is encoded for the TT receivers
(Munday, 2001: 123)

14. “DETHRONING OF THE SOURCE TEXT
Skopos Theory (5/5)
RULE 6 – “The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating”
It means that the translator should firstly ensure that the TT fulfils its purpose (RULE 1), then make sure that the TT in itself is coherent (RULE 4) and only then see that the TT demonstrates coherence with the ST (RULE 5)
“DETHRONING OF THE SOURCE TEXT
(Munday, 2001: 123)

15. Nord’s criticism to Skopos theory
Christiane Nord, also a functionalist:
While “functionality is the most important criterion for a translation” (Nord, 2005), this does not allow the translator absolute licence. There needs to be a relationship between ST and TT, and the nature of this relationship is determined by the skopos.
FUNCTIONALITY + LOYALTY
“Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source and the target sides. It must not be mixed up with fidelity or faithfulness, concepts that usually refer to a relationship holding between the source and the target texts. Loyalty is an interpersonal category referring to a social relationship between people”.
(Nord, 1997: 125, in Munday, 2001: 123)

16. Christiane Nord’s text analysis (1/3)
Textanalyse und Übersetzen: theoretische Grundlagen, Methode und didaktische Anwendung einer übersetzungsrelevanten Textanalyse (1988)
TWO TYPES OF TRANSLATION
DOCUMENTARY INSTRUMENTAL
(Nord, 1988: 80-81, in Munday, 2001: 126)
“Serves as a document of a source culture communication between the author and the ST recipient, who is well aware that he is reading a translation”
e.g. a literary translation, especially if it maintains the local colour
“Serves an independent message transmitting instrument in a new communicative action in the target culture”. The recipient won’t be aware of reading a translation
e.g. a computer manual

17. Christiane Nord’s text analysis (2/3)
Nord aimed at providing translation students with a model of ST analysis applicable to all text types and translation situations
enabling understanding of the ST features and the selection of translation strategies appropriate to the intended purpose of translation (…also a functionalist concept!)
Three aspects of functionalist approaches important for translator training:
The importance of the translation commission
The role of the ST analysis
The functional hierarchy of translation problems

18. Christiane Nord’s text analysis (3/3)
1. The importance of the translation commission
…that should provide information on intended text functions, sender and recipient, time and place of text reception, medium, motive…
2. The role of the ST analysis
…to decide on the feasibility of translation, the most relevant ST items that need to be taken into consideration, and the translation strategies that will be necessary to fulfil the commission
3. The functional hierarchy of translation problems
…working top-down from a pragmatic perspective and with the TT function paramount: 1. documentary translation or instrumental translation?; 2. which elements of the ST can be reproduced in the TT and which elements need to be adapted?; 3. a more source-oriented translation (for documentary) or a more target-oriented translation (for instrumental)?
(Nord, 1997:64, in Munday, 2001: )

19. Summary
In the ‘70s and ‘80s, Gemrnan functionalist theories focused on translation not as a mainly linguistic phenomenon but as an act of intercultural communication
Reiss’s initial work linked language function, text types and translation strategies
Later, Vermeer developed the Skopos theory, where the translation strategy depends on the purpose of the translation and the function of the TT in the target culture, dethroning the source text and the importance of the equivalence of meaning
Nord’s model, designed for training translators, retains the functional context but includes a more detailed text-analysis (functionality+loyalty)

20. References
MUNDAY, J Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge. NORD, C Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis, translated by Christiane Nord and Penelope Sparrow. 2nd edition. Amsterdam: Rodopi. REISS, K Texttyp und Übersetzugsmethode: Der operative Text. Kronberg: Scriptor Verlag. REISS, K. and H. J. Vermeer Grundlegung einer allgemeine Translationstheorie. Tübingen: Niemeyer. VERMEER, H “Skopos and commission in translation action”, in Lawrence Venuti (ed) The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge.

21. THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION!
PROF.SSA LAURA LIUCCI