1. Why Writing, Why Now, and What Can You Can Do?
Steve Graham
VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY

2. Meta-analysis (Let’s get the technical stuff out of the way)
Method for synthesizing experimental studies using statistical procedures -- produces a standard index for the findings from each study
Helps determine whether an instructional technique, strategy, or intervention is effective across a body of studies
Effect Size provides a standardized measure of the quantitative differences between two treatments, providing information on both the direction and magnitude of this difference

3. RULE OF THUMB Effect sizes OF .80 is LARGE (Moon)
Effect Size of .50 is MODERATE (Empire State Building)
Effect size of .25 is SMALL (Street)

4. 7 Reasons For Why Writing & Why Now
Please note that I will mostly refrain from talking about the importance of writing in terms of writing – it can be used as a tool for creating imaginary worlds, self- reflection, persuasion, and so on
This has not worked in the past, as writing has mainly been ignored by educational reformers

5. 1. Why Writing - It Improves Learning
Writing As A Tool for Learning (grades 4 to 12) Writing Next (Graham & Perin, 2007)
ES = .23
N = 26 studies
Writing about information in a science facilitates learning, as it provides the student with a means for recording, connecting, analyzing, personalizing, and manipulating key ideas.

6. 2. Why Writing - It Enhances Comprehension of Material Read
Research Question
(Writing to Read)
Standardized Measures
(ES)
Researcher Measures
Average Effect Size (ES) for all studies (grades 2-12)
0.40
(N = 11)
0.50
(N = 50) I.
Generating or responding to questions (grades 6-12)
0.27
(N = 8)
II.
Note-taking (grades 3-12)
0.46
(N = 23)
III.
Writing Summaries
(grades 3-12)
0.52
(N = 19)
IV.
Analysis or Interpretation
(grades 2-12)
0.77
(N = 9)

7. Other Important Tidbits
Struggling Students - Flying above the Empire State Building
In 60% of the studies students wrote about Science and Social Studies text

8. 3. Why Writing – Teaching Writing Enhances Reading Skills
Research Question
(Writing to Read)
Standardized Measures
Researcher Measures
Does writing instruction improve reading comprehension (e.g. sentence combining; text structure instruction)? (grades 4-12)
0.18
(N= 12)
0.27
(N = 5)
Does teaching spelling strengthen word reading skills? (grades 1-5)
0.68
Does writing instruction improve reading fluency? (grades 1-7)
0.79
(N=4)

9. 4. Why Writing – Look Beyond High School
Entrance to and Success in College (ACT Readiness Standards)
Writing is now a gate way into and key to promotion in white collar jobs
80% of blue collar workers now say that writing is important to their job success
Youngsters write now more than ever (social connections and writing)

10. 5. Why Writing – The Kids Are Not Alright
NAEP – Almost two thirds of students do not write well enough to meet classroom demands
We have made some but limited progress in improving writing over the last 20 years

11. 6. Why Writing – Kids Can’t Get Better if It is Not Taught
Teachers report having little to no preparation in how to teach writing
Teachers indicate they infrequently use evidence-based writing practices in their classroom
The writing assignments students do rarely involve analysis and interpretation (such writing is needed for advanced academic success in high school and college)
The 4 most common activities are writing short answer responses to homework, completing worksheets, summarizing material read, and responding to material read.

12. 7. Why Writing – The Common Core is Upon Us
We cannot just slide along anymore. The common core standards has upped the ante in terms of what needs to be done in writing. For example, need to emphasize persuasive, expository, and narrative writing

13. What Can Be Done to Turn This Around – 4 Simple Propositions
1. Students Must Write & Be Taught to Write (this is all teachers’ responsibility)
2. Writing Must Be Assessed In Ways That Minimizes Gaming the System and Narrowing the Writing Curriculum
3. We Need to Enhance the Capacity of Teachers to Teach Writing
4. Help Teachers Apply Proven & Effective Instructional Practices

14. I Would Like to Address This Last Issue
Practices Based on Sound Scientific Intervention Studies -- Should be more trustworthy than insight and experience, as researchers
Collect evidence of effectiveness
Present findings for all participants
Replicate their findings
Determine Strength of Impact

15. 1. Strategy Instruction
Involves explicitly and systematically teaching students strategies for planning, revising, and/or editing text. Instruction is designed to teach students to use these strategies independently. Writing strategies range from processes such as brainstorming (which can be applied across genres) to strategies designed for specific types of writing, such as stories or persuasive essays.

16. Strategy Instruction, Cont.
ES = .82

18. 2. Teaching Summarization
Involves explicitly and systematically teaching students how to summarize texts. This can include teaching strategies for summarizing text or instructional activities designed to improve students’ text summarization skills.
N = 4
ES = .82

19. Teach these 6 rules of summarization:
Delete unnecessary material
Delete redundant material
Compose a word to replace a list of items
Compose a word to replace individual parts of an action
Select a topic sentence
Invent a topic sentence if need be

20. 3. Peer Assistance
Involves students working together to plan, draft, and/or revise their compositions.
N = 7
ES = .75

21. 4. Setting Product Goals
Involves assigning students specific goals for the written product they are to complete.
N = 5
ES = .70

22. 5. Word Processing
Involves having students use word processing and related software to write.
N = 18
ES = .55

23. 6. Sentence Combining
Involves teaching students to construct more complex and sophisticated sentences through exercises where two or more basic sentences are combined into a single sentence.
N = 5
ES = .50

24. 7. Process Approach
Involves extended opportunities for writing; writing for real audiences; engaging in cycles of planning, translating, and reviewing; personal responsibility and ownership of writing projects; high levels of student interactions; creation of a supportive writing environment; self-reflection and evaluation; personalized individual assistance and instruction; and in some instances more systematic instruction.

25. Process Approach Cont.
N = 21
ES = .32

26. 8. Pre-Writing Activities
Involves students engaging in activities (such as using a semantic web or brainstorming ideas) designed to help them generate or organize ideas for their composition.
N = 5
ES = .32

28. 9. Study of Models
Involves students examining examples of one or more specific types of text and attempting to emulate the patterns or forms in these examples in their own writing.
N = 6
ES = .25

29. 10. Formative Assessment
Assessment included adult feedback to students, peer feedback, self-assessment, and progress monitoring
Provide Feedback
N= 16
ES = .77
Self-Assessment
N= 7
ES = .46

30. 10. Formative Assessment
Assessment included adult feedback to students, peer feedback, self-assessment, and progress monitoring
Provide Feedback
N= 16
ES = .77
Self-Assessment
N= 7
ES = .46

31. My Advise - Be Positive
Reinforce positive aspects of students’ writing (small positive impact). This involves providing social praise, tangible reinforcers, or both, as a means of increasing specific writing behaviors.

32. Some References
Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & Hebert, M. (2011). Informing Writing. Alliance for Excellence in Education. Washington, D.C. (Commissioned by the Carnegie Corp. of New York). To be released by the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2010). Writing to Reading: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. Alliance for Excellence in Education. Washington, D.C. (Commissioned by the Carnegie Corp. of New York)
Graham, S., & Perrin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescent middle and high school. Alliance for Excellence in Education. Washington, D.C. (Commissioned by the Carnegie Corp. of New York)
Rogers, L., & Graham, S. (2008). A meta-analysis of single subject design writing intervention
research. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100,
Graham, S., & Perrin, D. (2007). What we know, what we still need to know: Teaching
adolescents to write. Scientific Studies in Reading, 11,
Graham, S., Kiuhara, S., McKeown, D., Harris, K. (2011). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Submitted for Publication.