1. The Research Paper Argumentative Essays
A.P.A Format

2. The Purpose of a Paper…
To explore a topic of interest critically, and to share what you have learned in a written format.
It combines your ideas with those of published authors.
Presents an argument or gives an analysis of a topic.

3. What is an argumentative essay?
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.

4. Getting Started Overview:
Step One: Narrow your topic and generate a research question (what do I want to know?)
Step Two: Break it up into smaller questions
Step Three: Find information
Step Four: Organize information
Step five: Formulate your argument

5. Taking Notes
This is a difficult but IMPORTANT part of researching the paper.
Take notes as your read.
Summarize information in your own words. (Focus on the main idea)
Paraphrase information.
Find examples that support your thesis/research question.
Record where you are researching, as you will need this information for citations and references.

6. Do Not Plagiarize!!!!! It is a serious offence!
Plagiarism will be dealt with by administration!
You must give credit for other people’s ideas, opinions or theories!!!!

7. Evaluating your sources
Author/Organization: Are they an expert? Do they have an agenda? Bias?
Language: Strong? Vague? Positive? Negative?
Quality of argument: What information are they basing it on?
Your source’s sources: How/where did they get their information?

8. Organizing your information:
Remember:
It is easier to assemble all the data BEFORE writing the paper, than during the process.
Outline:
It may be helpful to produce an outline of your essay, to serve as a roadmap for your research paper.
Your outline will help organize your paper into several basic parts:
Introduction
Main body paragraphs
Conclusion
References

10. The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following:
A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

11. Introduction:
Introduction – Provides background information to the reader about the issue you are dealing with and allows you to state a research question or thesis.
The first paragraph is crucial for catching the attention of the audience and for conveying to them the importance of the questions that you have addressed in the paper.
If you do not catch the attention of the audience in the first few sentences the chances are high that they will not want to continue reading.

12. Introduction Things not to do:
Do not say “In this paper I will…” or “The purpose of this essay…”
Do not use a dictionary or encyclopedia definition to start your essay.

13. Introduction
Introductory Paragraph (at least 5 sentences): This paragraph must introduce your topic and present your thesis.
Opening Sentence
Grab the reader’s attention with something interesting and specific to your topic. Avoid sweeping generalizations (Throughout time… People always wonder about…) as they are too vague and meaningless.
Subsequent Sentences
Provide a general overview of the topic. What does the reader need to know before he/she is able to understand your thesis? What is the context?
Define any key concepts and terms central to the focus of your essay.
Thesis Statement
In one sentence clearly state your position and briefly outline your supporting arguments.
Present your arguments in the same order in which you will address them in your essay.

14. Thesis Statement
The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you, the author, will be making.
It maps out the paper as it suggests an order or direction for the paper’s development.
A good thesis statement often answers the questions How? and Why?

15. Examples of Thesis Statements
A thesis should be arguable. Reasonable people should be able to disagree with your thesis.
A thesis is supported by strong arguments. It’s important to discuss the best arguments in favor of your thesis in addition to addressing the strongest ones that go against it.
A thesis takes some sort of stand. You must draw your own conclusions and support them by research.

16. Thesis Statement
It Generates a multi-faceted argument.
Example: Human cloning is unethical because it erodes human individuality, creates emotional and psychological trauma for the cloned child, and eliminates necessary biological gene selection

17. Examples of Thesis statements:
Pollution is bad for the environment.
(POOR)
At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on helping upgrade business to clean technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees in order to control or eliminate pollution.
(BETTER)

18. Sum up Thesis
It is an assertion, not a fact or observation. Facts are used within the paper to support your thesis.
Takes a stand, meaning it announces your position towards a particular topic.
Is the main idea and explains what you intend to discuss.
Answers a specific question and explains how you plan to support your argument.
Is debatable. Someone should be able to argue an alternate position, or conversely, support your claims.

19. Counterargument
When you write an academic essay, you make an argument: you propose a thesis and offer some reasoning, using evidence, that suggests why the thesis is true.
When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your reasoning.
Counterargument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it.

20. Introduce Counterargument
You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,... or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so, what about...?
Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible.

21. Turn Back Counterargument
Your return to your own argument—which you announce with a but, yet, however, nevertheless or still—must likewise involve careful reasoning. In reasoning about the proposed counterargument, you may
refute it, showing why it is mistaken
acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it's relatively less important or less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it;

22. Where to Put a Counterargument
Counterargument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears
as part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing;
as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own;
as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counterargument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue;
as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued.

23. Topic Sentences
Every paragraph should include a topic sentence that identifies the main idea of the paragraph.
A topic sentence also states the point the writer wishes to make about that subject.
Generally, the topic sentence appears at the beginning of the paragraph. It is often the paragraph’s very first sentence.
Start at 2:41 mins

24. Writing the Body Paragraphs Remember: Say it…Support it…Explain it!
The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued.
Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs.
Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.

25. First Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph)
Topic Sentence
Your first supporting argument to prove your thesis is clearly stated.
Proof/Evidence
Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations.
Explanation
Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant?
Connection
Close the paragraph by wrapping up the argument presented in the topic sentence and connecting it to your thesis.
Transition to next paragraph

26. Second Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph)
Topic Sentence
Your second supporting argument to prove your thesis is clearly stated.
Proof/Evidence
Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations.
Explanation
Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant?
Connection
Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic sentence argument and connecting it to your thesis.
Transition to next paragraph

27. Third Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph)
Topic Sentence
Your third supporting argument to prove your thesis is clearly stated. **To further strengthen your argument & thesis use this paragraph(s) to acknowledge and refute counter-argument(s) if applicable.
Proof/Evidence
Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations.
Explanation
Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant?
Connection
Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic sentence argument and connecting it to your thesis.

28. Example of a Simple Paragraph
The triangular trade unquestionably had a negative impact on Africa because it caused depopulation. The population in Africa declined for several reasons. Firstly, they were taking young males between the ages of 15 and 25. This was not only the skilled workforce of Africa, but also the reproductive part of the population. Consequently, this meant that fewer babies were born (Reid, 2013, para.5). Concurrently, they captured and enslaved millions of Africans and took them across the middle passage to the Americas. This was the part of the population that was needed to protect the Africans from the Europeans (The Slave Trade, para.2). Lastly, violence erupted in Africa during the Atlantic slave trade. Africans that resisted the Europeans were killed in rebellions. Furthermore, the Europeans caused tribal conflicts by introducing guns to the Africans and forcing them to capture prisoners of wars for the slave trade (Impact on Africa, 2010, para.10). Without a doubt, the triangular trade negatively impacted Africa by causing depopulation and consequently caused a loss of culture.

29. Conclusion *New information must not be introduced.
The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points and providing a final perspective on your topic.
Concluding Paragraph (at least 5 sentences)
*New information must not be introduced.
First Sentence
Restate your thesis – use different wording that demonstrates you proved it.
Subsequent Sentences
Clearly summarize your arguments in support of the thesis. Remember, it is your last chance to convince the reader you have proven your thesis! Avoid a thoughtless regurgitation.
Leave the reader with something to think about.

30. Transitional Words and Phrases:
Good transitions can connect ideas and paragraphs
Helps papers read more smoothly, and at the same time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from one point to the next.
Always use a transition phrase at the beginning of a new body paragraph
Always use a transition word in between thoughts within a paragraph
Never use a transition word to begin an essay
Never use a transition word to begin a paragraph (but you can sometimes use a transition phrase at the start of a new body paragraph)

31. Transitional Devices To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)
To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true
To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

32. Transitional Devices To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
To Emphasize:
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

33. Transitional Devices To Show Sequence:
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
To Give an Example:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole

34. Punctuation Rules
Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so): - Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.) example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.
Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either or):
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences). example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook.
You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases. example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.
Transitional Words and Phrases:
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence. example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences. example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

35. Notes to Remember… Do not use contractions in a formal essay.
For example, use do not instead of don’t.
Do not write in the first person.
For example, use “One may think” instead of stating “I think”
Write out numbers 1 to 10, and any other short number.
Seven, eight, nine, ten, 11, 12, 13, 14.

36. Title Page, Citations, & Reference Page
A.p.A. Format

37. Title Page Center the title approximately in the middle of the page.
Abb. Title 1
An Original Title
Your Name
Course Name
Ms. Reid
Due Date
Center the title approximately in the middle of the page.
Do Not underline or place quotation marks around the title unless it happens to be a quote or the title of a literary work.
Capitalize the first letter in the title and all other words except prepositions.
Double-space the following under the title: your Name, Course (Block), Teacher’s Name and date.
Page #’s are to be placed in the upper right hand corner of every page, including the title page and reference page.
Use an abbreviated title, which is 5 spaces to the left of the page number.
Do not use periods or brackets around the #.

38. Citations Tip: If in doubt, cite!
Use APA in-text citations, which will direct the reader to a list of references at the end of the paper. They identify the author’s name, the year of publication. For direct quotes, also include the page number.
Use citations when you:
Use quotes (exact words from someone else)
Use ideas from someone else
Summarize and paraphrase other sources
Statistics
Visual info. Such as tables, graphs, diagrams & illustrations
You do not need to use citations when…
It is your original thoughts and ideas
Common Knowledge (Ottawa is the capital of Canada)
Tip: If in doubt, cite!

39. Examples of Citations Quotations: (Author, date, page #)
No date = (Author, page #)
No Author = (Abb. Title, date, page #)
Web site = Same, but instead of page # use paragraph #
(¶ = symbol for paragraph) (Reid, 2005, ¶5) or (Reid, 2005, para. 5)
If the author’s name is mentioned in the text…
Ms. Reid (2005) states "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (p.5).
If the author’s name is not mentioned in the text…
In a recent publication, one observer noted "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade " (Reid, 2005, p.5).

40. Examples of Citations Summary or Paraphrase
Same as above, but you do not need to use page #’s, unless using longer works.
Two Authors
(Clarkson & McCall, 2005, p.#).
Unknown Author
Use the title of the work. Example: (Crisis in Africa, 2005, p.#).

41. Examples of Citations Electronic Sources:
Use paragraph #’s instead of page #’s. Use the symbol ¶ or by the abbreviation "para."
Example: (Reid, 2005, ¶5) or (Reid, 2005, para. 5)
If neither a page nor a paragraph number is given and the document contains headings, cite the appropriate heading and indicate which paragraph under that heading you are referring to.
Example: (Shared Path section, para. 6).

42. Examples of Citations
If you use a source that was cited in another source (a secondary source), name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include it in your parenthetical citation, preceded by the words "as cited in." In the following example, Booth is the secondary source.
Example:
Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

43. Reference Page
At the end of the report (on a separate piece of paper), center the title References at the top of the page. Do not italicize, underline or use quotation marks around the title.
Number the page of your reference list the same as the rest of your paper. (Shorten title and 5 spaces and then page #)
Arrange all sources you used in a single alphabetical list by author’s last name or by title if no author is given.
Double-space all entries in your reference list.
DO not indent the first line, but always indent the second or third lines (5 spaces). This is called Hanging Indentation.
Always leave 1 space after commas and 2 spaces after periods and colons.
Do not # them.

44. Reference Samples Book
Author. (Date). Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Editor
Name of Editor. (Ed.). (Date). Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Electronic Encyclopedia
Title of Article. (Date). Name of Encyclopedia. Publisher.
Encyclopedia
Author (if given). (Date). Title of Article. Name of Encyclopedia.
Volume #, Pages.
Magazine/Newspaper
Author (if given). (Date, Month). Title of Article. Name of
Magazine/Newspaper, Pages.

45. Reference Samples Internet Resources
Author. (Date). Title of Article. Retrieved September 20th,
2005 from URL
Example:
Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Notable People in Psychology of
Religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from
No Date
Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable People in Psychology of Religion. Retrieved
August 3, 2001, from  
No Author, No Date
Gender and Society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from

46. Title 5 References
DiLorenzo, Thomas. (2002). The Economics of Slavery.
Retrieved September 17th, 2007, from
ckwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo29.html
Dodson, Howard. (2003). How Slavery Helped Build a World Economy.
Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from
2003/01/0131_030203_jubilee2.html
Field, Ron. (1995). African Peoples of the Americas. Great Britain: Cambridge
University Press..
Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from
The Economics of Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September
17th, 2007, from
article_display.cfm?HHID=80

47. Editing
Read your essay out loud to yourself and then to someone else!!!!!

48. Editing Checklist Introduction:
Does the beginning catch the reader’s attention?
Does the introductory paragraph lead into the thesis statement?
Does the thesis statement clearly outline your principle arguments?
Is your thesis statement the last sentence in your introduction?

49. Editing Checklist Body:
Does each paragraph have a topic sentence that links back to your thesis statement?
Do the examples you use support your principle arguments?
Is your writing focused and clear? Do you stay on topic and state things clearly?
Is the writing organized logically? (cause/effect, chronological, example/analysis)
Are the details sufficiently described? (saying who exactly instead of “they”; stating exactly where; and when…)
Have you deleted details that don’t relate to the topic of each paragraph or the thesis?
Are there any details that should be added to make the topic clearer?
Do you have transitions? (1.Using transitional words and phrases helps papers read more smoothly by providing coherence; 2.A coherent paper allows the reader to flow from the first supporting point to the next; 3.Transitions indicate relations, whether from sentence to sentence, from paragraph to paragraph, or from one idea to the next.)

50. Editing Checklist Word Choice:
Have any words been unnecessarily repeated?
Have you replaced weak, general words with specific ones?
Have you turned all contractions into two words? (isn’t = is not)
Have you spelled out small numbers? (1 = one)

51. Editing Checklist Research:
Have you included a variety of “evidence”: quotes, summarizing others ideas, statistics…?
Have you properly cited where your information comes from? Do you attribute ideas to their original sources?
Do you use all of your references in your research, or do you lean too heavily on one reference for information?
Are your citations in proper APA format?
Is your reference page in proper APA format?

52. Editing Checklist Conclusion:
Does your conclusion restate your thesis statement and summarize your main points again?

53. Editing Checklist Editing Checklist for Research Essays:
I have corrected all misspellings
I have corrected punctuation errors (commas, colons, semicolons, end punctuation)
My writing contains correct capitalization of sentences and proper nouns
All of the verbs agree with their subjects (Ex: people = eat, she = eats)
All contractions are two words. Apostrophes are only used for possessives (Ex: Abdullah’s hat).
I have eliminated all run-on sentences.
I have checked for commonly misused homonyms (their, there, they’re [they are]; to, too, two; threw, through; weather, whether)

54. Congratulations!
Once you have checked your work and perfected your formatting, your essay is finished.

55. References
Harvard College Writing Center. (2015). Retrieved on November 18th, 2015 from The Purdue Writing Lab. (2011). Retrieved on November 18th, 2015 from