1. Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles10
Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

2. Overview: Variations on a Theme
Living organisms are distinguished by their ability to reproduce their own kind
Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Variation is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation 2

3. Figure 10.1
Figure 10.1 What accounts for family resemblance? 3

4. Concept 10.1: Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes
In a literal sense, children do not inherit particular physical traits from their parents 4

5. NOTES ON CHROMOSOMES 1 chromosome = 1 DNA molecule
DNA is built from monomers called nucleotides
A nucleotide is a phosphate-sugar backbone with an attached nitrogenous base
Bases are Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Thymine (T)

6. Inheritance of Genes
Genes are the units of heredity and are made up of segments of DNA
Code for proteins that determine an individual’s traits.
The “code” is a sequence of nucleotides
Example ATTCGGCCCCCAAAATTAG
Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and eggs) 6

7. Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes
For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells, the cells of the body except for gametes and their precursors
Each gene has a specific position, or locus, on a certain chromosome 7

8. Examples of Gene Loci

9. Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, a single individual passes genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes
A clone is a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent
In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents
Offspring vary genetically from the parents and the siblings 9

10. Video: Hydra Budding

11. 0.5 mm Parent Bud (a) Hydra Figure 10.2a
Figure 10.2a Asexual reproduction in two multicellular organisms (part 1: hydra)
(a) Hydra 12

12. Figure 10.2b
Figure 10.2b Asexual reproduction in two multicellular organisms (part 2: redwoods)
(b) Redwoods 13

13. Concept 10.2: Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
A life cycle is the generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism 14

14. Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
Human somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairs of chromosomes from a cell
The two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous chromosomes, or homologs
Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the same length and shape and carry genes controlling the same inherited characters, just different forms (possibly) of that trait 15

15. duplicated chromosomes
Figure 10.3
Application
Technique
Pair of homologous
duplicated chromosomes
5 m
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Figure 10.3 Research method: preparing a karyotype
Metaphase
chromosome 16

16. Figure 10.3a
Application
Figure 10.3a Research method: preparing a karyotype (part 1: application) 17

17. duplicated chromosomes
Figure 10.3b
Technique
Pair of homologous
duplicated chromosomes
5 m
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Figure 10.3b Research method: preparing a karyotype (part 2: technique)
Metaphase
chromosome 18

18. Figure 10.3c
5 m
Figure 10.3c Research method: preparing a karyotype (part 3: results) 19

19. Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX)
The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of the individual, are called X and Y
Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX)
Human males have one X and one Y chromosome
The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes 20

20. A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes
Each pair of homologous chromosomes includes one chromosome from each parent
The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell are two sets of 23: one from the mother and one from the father
A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes
For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n  46) 21

21. Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids
In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred, each chromosome is replicated
Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids 22

22. Key Maternal set of chromosomes (n  3) 2n  6 Paternal set of
Figure 10.4
Key
Maternal set of
chromosomes (n  3)
2n  6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n  3)
Sister chromatids
of one duplicated
chromosome
Centromere
Figure 10.4 Describing chromosomes
Two nonsister
chromatids in
a homologous pair
Pair of homologous
chromosomes
(one from each set) 23

23. For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set of chromosomes and is haploid (n)
For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes and a single sex chromosome
In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X
In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y 24

24. Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle
Fertilization is the union of gametes (the sperm and the egg)
The fertilized egg is called a zygote and has one set of chromosomes from each parent
The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis and develops into an adult 25

25. At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes
Gametes are the only types of human cells produced by meiosis rather than mitosis
Meiosis produces germ cells that eventually develop into sperm/egg cells.
Germ cells are located in the ovaries and testes
Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes in each gamete
Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles to maintain chromosome number 26

26. Comparison of Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood.
Oogenesis occurs prior to birth, with mature eggs forming throughout adolescence and adulthood.

27. Multicellular diploid adults (2n  46)
Figure 10.5
Key
Haploid gametes (n  23)
Haploid (n)
Egg (n)
Diploid (2n)
Sperm (n)
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Ovary
Testis
Figure 10.5 The human life cycle
Diploid
zygote
(2n  46)
Mitosis and
development
Multicellular diploid
adults (2n  46) 28

28. The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
The alternation of meiosis and fertilization is common to all organisms that reproduce sexually
The three main types of sexual life cycles differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization 29

29. Gametes are the only haploid cells in animals
They are produced by meiosis and undergo no further cell division before fertilization
Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote that divides by mitosis to develop into a multicellular organism 30

30. Figure 10.6
Key
Haploid (n)
Haploid multi-
cellular organism
(gametophyte)
Haploid unicellular or
multicellular organism
Diploid (2n) n
Gametes n n
Mitosis n
Mitosis
Mitosis n
Mitosis n n n n n
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Spores n n
Gametes
Gametes n
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Zygote
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION 2n 2n 2n 2n
Zygote
Diploid
multicellular
organism
(sporophyte) 2n
Figure 10.6 Three types of sexual life cycles
Diploid
multicellular
organism
Mitosis
Mitosis
Zygote
(a) Animals
(b) Plants and some algae
(c) Most fungi and some protists 31

31. Key Haploid (n) n Gametes n Diploid (2n) n MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
Figure 10.6a
Key
Haploid (n) n
Gametes n
Diploid (2n) n
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Zygote 2n 2n
Figure 10.6a Three types of sexual life cycles (part 1: animal)
Mitosis
Diploid
multicellular
organism
(a) Animals 32

32. Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation of generations
This life cycle includes both a diploid and haploid multicellular stage
The diploid organism, called the sporophyte, makes haploid spores by meiosis 33

33. A gametophyte makes haploid gametes by mitosis
Each spore grows by mitosis into a haploid organism called a gametophyte
A gametophyte makes haploid gametes by mitosis
Fertilization of gametes results in a diploid sporophyte 34

34. (b) Plants and some algae
Figure 10.6b
Haploid multi-
cellular organism
(gametophyte)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Mitosis n
Mitosis n n n n
Spores
Gametes
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION 2n
Figure 10.6b Three types of sexual life cycles (part 2: plant) 2n
Zygote
Diploid
multicellular
organism
(sporophyte)
Mitosis
(b) Plants and some algae 35

35. The zygote produces haploid cells by meiosis
In most fungi and some protists, the only diploid stage is the single-celled zygote; there is no multicellular diploid stage
The zygote produces haploid cells by meiosis
Each haploid cell grows by mitosis into a haploid multicellular organism
The haploid adult produces gametes by mitosis 36

36. Haploid unicellular or multicellular organism Key
Figure 10.6c
Haploid unicellular or
multicellular organism
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Mitosis n
Mitosis n n n
Gametes n
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Figure 10.6c Three types of sexual life cycles (part 3: fungi) 2n
Zygote
(c) Most fungi and some protists 37

37. However, only diploid cells can undergo meiosis
Depending on the type of life cycle, either haploid or diploid cells can divide by mitosis
However, only diploid cells can undergo meiosis
In all three life cycles, the halving and doubling of chromosomes contribute to genetic variation in offspring 38

38. Concept 10.3: Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of chromosomes
Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II
The two cell divisions result in four daughter cells, rather than the two daughter cells in mitosis
Each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell 39

39. The Stages of Meiosis
For a single pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell, both members of the pair are duplicated
The resulting sister chromatids are closely associated all along their lengths
Sister chromatid cohesins
Homologs may have different versions of genes, each called an allele
Homologs are not associated in any obvious way except during meiosis 40

40. duplicated chromosomes Meiosis II
Figure 10.7
Interphase
Pair of homologous
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell
Chromosomes
duplicate
Duplicated pair
of homologous
chromosomes
Sister
chromatids
Diploid cell with
duplicated
chromosomes
Meiosis I 1
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
Figure 10.7 Overview of meiosis: how meiosis reduces chromosome number
Haploid cells with
duplicated chromosomes
Meiosis II 2
Sister chromatids
separate
Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes 41

41. Interphase Pair of homologous chromosomes in diploid parent cell
Figure 10.7a
Interphase
Pair of homologous
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell
Chromosomes
duplicate
Duplicated pair
of homologous
chromosomes
Figure 10.7a Overview of meiosis: how meiosis reduces chromosome number (part 1: interphase)
Sister
chromatids
Diploid cell with
duplicated
chromosomes 42

42. duplicated chromosomes Meiosis II 2 Sister chromatids separate
Figure 10.7b
Meiosis I 1
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
Haploid cells with
duplicated chromosomes
Meiosis II 2
Sister chromatids
separate
Figure 10.7b Overview of meiosis: how meiosis reduces chromosome number (part 2: meiosis I and II)
Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes 43

43. Meiosis halves the total number of chromosomes very specifically
It reduces the number of sets from two to one, with each daughter cell receiving one set of chromosomes 44

44. Four new haploid cells are produced as a result
In the first meiotic division, homologous pairs of chromosomes pair and separate
In the second meiotic division, sister chromatids of each chromosome separate
Four new haploid cells are produced as a result
Cells are not genetically identical to each other
NOTE – this is not part of the text, but rather a quick summary of what is in Figure 10.8. 45

45. Video: Meiosis

46. Video: Meiosis I in Sperm Formation

47. MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes
Figure 10.8
MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes
MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I and
Cytokinesis
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II and
Cytokinesis
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
(with kinetochore)
Sister chromatids
remain attached
Centrosome
(with centriole
pair)
Cleavage
furrow
Chiasmata
Metaphase
plate
Spindle
Sister chromatids
separate
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Figure 10.8 Exploring meiosis in an animal cell
Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore
Homologous
chromosomes
Haploid
daughter
cells forming 48

48. MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes
Figure 10.8a
MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes
Telophase I and
Cytokinesis
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
(with kinetochore)
Sister chromatids
remain attached
Centrosome
(with centriole
pair)
Cleavage
furrow
Chiasmata
Metaphase
plate
Spindle
Figure 10.8a Exploring meiosis in an animal cell (part 1: meiosis I)
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore
Homologous
chromosomes 49

49. MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids
Figure 10.8b
MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids
Telophase II and
Cytokinesis
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids
separate
Figure 10.8b Exploring meiosis in an animal cell (part 2: meiosis II)
Haploid
daughter
cells forming 50

50. Chromosomes begin to condense
Prophase I
Prophase I typically occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis
Chromosomes begin to condense
In synapsis, homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene 51

51. In crossing over, nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments
Each homologous pair has one or more X-shaped regions called chiasmata
Chiasmata exist at points where crossing over has occurred. 52

52. Metaphase I
In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole
Microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad
Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the other chromosome 53

53. In anaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes separate
One chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the spindle apparatus
Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and move as one unit toward the pole 54

54. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, forming two haploid daughter cells 55

55. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant cells, a cell plate forms
Interkinesis
No chromosome replication occurs between the end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II because the chromosomes are already replicated 56

56. Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II and cytokinesis
Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis 57

57. In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate 58

58. Metaphase II
In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate
Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer genetically identical
The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles 59

59. In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate
The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles 60

60. Telophase II and Cytokinesis
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing 61

61. At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unduplicated chromosomes
Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the parent cell 62

62. A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell
Meiosis includes two divisions after replication, each with specific stages 63

63. Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis l
Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information
Homologous pairs at the metaphase plate: Homologous pairs of chromosomes are positioned there in metaphase I
Separation of homologs during anaphase I 64

64. Figure 10.9 A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells
Parent cell
Chiasma
MEIOSIS I
Prophase
Prophase I
Chromosome
duplication
Chromosome
duplication
Homologous
chromosome
pair
Duplicated
chromosome
2n = 6
Individual
chromosomes
line up.
Pairs of
chromosomes
line up.
Metaphase
Metaphase I
Anaphase
Sister chromatids
separate.
Homologs
separate.
Anaphase I
Telophase
Telophase I
Sister
chromatids
separate.
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I 2n 2n
MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis n n n n
Figure 10.9 A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells
Daughter cells of meiosis II
SUMMARY
Property
Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA replication
Occurs during interphase before mitosis begins
Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins
Number of divisions
One, including prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of homologous
chromosomes
Does not occur
Occurs during prophase I along with crossing over between nonsister chromatids;
resulting chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion
Number of daughter cells
and genetic composition
Two, each diploid (2n) and genetically
identical to the parent cell
Four, each haploid (n), containing half as many chromosomes as the parent cell;
genetically different from the parent cell and from each other
Role in the animal body
Enables multicellular adult to arise from zygote;
produces cells for growth, repair, and, in some
species, asexual reproduction
Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosome sets by half and introduces
genetic variability among the gametes 65

65. Daughter cells of meiosis II
Figure 10.9a
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Parent cell
Chiasma
MEIOSIS I
Prophase
Prophase I
Chromosome
duplication
Chromosome
duplication
Homologous
chromosome
pair
Duplicated
chromosome
2n = 6
Individual
chromosomes
line up.
Pairs of
chromosomes
line up.
Metaphase
Metaphase I
Anaphase
Sister chromatids
separate.
Homologs
separate.
Anaphase I
Telophase
Telophase I
Figure 10.9a A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 1: mitosis vs. meiosis art)
Sister
chromatids
separate.
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I 2n 2n
MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis n n n n
Daughter cells of meiosis II 66

66. Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication
Figure 10.9aa
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
Prophase
Chiasma
Prophase I
Homologous
chromosome
pair
Duplicated
chromosome
Chromosome
duplication
Chromosome
duplication
2n = 6
Individual
chromosomes
line up.
Pairs of
chromosomes
line up.
Figure 10.9aa A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 1a: prophase and metaphase art)
Metaphase I
Metaphase 67

67. Daughter cells of mitosis
Figure 10.9ab
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Anaphase
Anaphase I
Telophase
Telophase I
Sister chromatids
separate.
Homologs
separate.
Sister
chromatids
separate.
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I
MEIOSIS II 2n 2n n n
Figure 10.9ab A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 1b: anaphase, telophase and meiosis II art)
Daughter cells
of mitosis n n
Daughter cells of meiosis II 68

68. SUMMARY Property Mitosis Meiosis DNA replication
Figure 10.9b
SUMMARY
Property
Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA
replication
Occurs during interphase
before mitosis begins
Occurs during interphase before meiosis I
begins
Number of
divisions
One, including prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Two, each including prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes
Does not occur
Occurs during prophase I along with crossing
over between nonsister chromatids; resulting
chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister
chromatid cohesion
Number of
daughter cells
and genetic
composition
Two, each diploid (2n) and
genetically identical to the
parent cell
Four, each haploid (n), containing half as
many chromosomes as the parent cell;
genetically different from the parent cell and
from each other
Figure 10.9b A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 2: mitosis vs. meiosis table)
Role in the
animal body
Enables multicellular adult to
arise from zygote; produces
cells for growth, repair, and,
in some species, asexual
reproduction
Produces gametes; reduces number of
chromosome sets by half and introduces
genetic variability among the gametes 69

69. Property Mitosis DNA replication Occurs during interphase
Figure 10.9ba
Property
Mitosis
DNA
replication
Occurs during interphase
before mitosis begins
Number of
divisions
One, including prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes
Does not occur
Number of
daughter cells
and genetic
composition
Two, each diploid (2n) and
genetically identical to the
parent cell
Figure 10.9ba A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 2a: mitosis table)
Role in the
animal body
Enables multicellular adult to arise
from zygote; produces cells for
growth, repair, and, in some
species, asexual reproduction 70

70. Property Meiosis DNA replication
Figure 10.9bb
Property
Meiosis
DNA
replication
Occurs during interphase before meiosis I
begins
Number of
divisions
Two, each including prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes
Occurs during prophase I along with crossing
over between nonsister chromatids; resulting
chiasmata hold pairs together due to sister
chromatid cohesion
Number of
daughter cells
and genetic
composition
Four, each haploid (n), containing half as
many chromosomes as the parent cell;
genetically different from the parent cell and
from each other
Figure 10.9bb A comparison of mitosis and meiosis in diploid cells (part 2b: meiosis table)
Role in the
animal body
Produces gametes; reduces number of
chromosome sets by half and introduces
genetic variability among the gametes 71

71. Protein complexes called cohesins are responsible for this cohesion
Sister chromatid cohesion keeps sister chromatids of a single chromosome attached during meiosis and mitosis
Protein complexes called cohesins are responsible for this cohesion
In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of metaphase
In meiosis, cohesins are cleaved along the chromosome arms in anaphase I (separation of homologs) and at the centromeres in anaphase II (separation of sister chromatids) 72

72. Meiosis I is called the reductional division because it halves the number of chromosome sets per cell from diploid (2n) to haploid (n)
Meiosis II is called the equational division because the haploid cells divide to produce haploid daughter cells
The mechanism of sister chromatid separation in meiosis II is identical to that in mitosis 73

73. Concept 10.4: Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA) are the original source of genetic diversity
Mutations create different versions of genes called alleles
Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction produces genetic variation
Each individual has a unique set of traits 74

74. Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation
Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation
Independent assortment of chromosomes
Crossing over
Random fertilization 75

75. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
In independent assortment, each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs 76

76. The number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number
If n is 2, then there are 4 possible combinations
If n is 3, then there are 8 possible combinations
For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 million (223) possible combinations of chromosomes 77

77. Possibility 2 Possibility 1 Two equally probable arrangements of
Figure
Possibility 1
Possibility 2
Two equally probable
arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Figure The independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in meiosis (step 1) 78

78. Possibility 2 Possibility 1 Two equally probable arrangements of
Figure
Possibility 1
Possibility 2
Two equally probable
arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Figure The independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in meiosis (step 2) 79

79. Possibility 1 Possibility 2 Two equally probable arrangements of
Figure
Possibility 1
Possibility 2
Two equally probable
arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Figure The independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in meiosis (step 3)
Daughter
cells
Combination 1
Combination 2
Combination 3
Combination 4 80

80. Crossing Over
Crossing over produces recombinant chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited from each parent
Carry genes derived from two different parents
Crossing over begins very early in prophase I, as homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene (Synapsis)
Synapsis produces a tetrad (4 chromatids) 81

81. In crossing over, homologous portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places
Chiasmata are places where they cross over
The chromatids are broken by very specific proteins at precisely corresponding points.
Crossing over contributes to genetic variation by combining DNA, producing chromosomes with new combinations of maternal and paternal alleles 82

82. Animation: Genetic Variation
Right click slide / Select play

83. Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids held together
Figure
Prophase I
of meiosis
Nonsister chromatids
held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs
Figure The results of crossing over during meiosis (step 1) 84

84. Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids held together
Figure
Prophase I
of meiosis
Nonsister chromatids
held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs
Synapsis and
crossing over
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Figure The results of crossing over during meiosis (step 2) 85

85. proteins holding sister chromatid arms together Anaphase I
Figure
Prophase I
of meiosis
Nonsister chromatids
held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs
Synapsis and
crossing over
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Breakdown of
proteins holding sister
chromatid arms together
Anaphase I
Figure The results of crossing over during meiosis (step 3) 86

86. proteins holding sister chromatid arms together Anaphase I
Figure
Prophase I
of meiosis
Nonsister chromatids
held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs
Synapsis and
crossing over
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Breakdown of
proteins holding sister
chromatid arms together
Anaphase I
Figure The results of crossing over during meiosis (step 4)
Anaphase II 87

87. proteins holding sister chromatid arms together Anaphase I
Figure
Prophase I
of meiosis
Nonsister chromatids
held together
during synapsis
Pair of
homologs
Synapsis and
crossing over
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Breakdown of
proteins holding sister
chromatid arms together
Anaphase I
Figure The results of crossing over during meiosis (step 5)
Anaphase II
Daughter
cells
Recombinant chromosomes 88

88. Chiasma Centromere TEM Figure 10.11a
Figure 10.11a The results of crossing over during meiosis (TEM)
TEM 89

89. Random Fertilization
Random fertilization adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)
The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million possible chromosome combinations from independent assortment) produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations 90

90. Crossing over adds even more variation
Each zygote has a unique genetic identity 91

91. The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations
Darwin’s Ideas
Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the environment
Organisms with traits best suited to an environment survive, reproduce and pass those traits to their offspring
This is called natural selection
An accumulation of genetic variations favored by the environment
Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic variation in a population, which originates from mutations
Mutations can come from mistakes in the replication of DNA, as well as mistakes in the processes of mitosis and meiosis 92

92. Nonetheless, sexual reproduction is nearly universal among animals
Asexual reproduction requires less energy than sexual reproduction, but does not produce the genetic variation that sexual reproduction produces
Nonetheless, sexual reproduction is nearly universal among animals
Generates genetic diversity
Overall, genetic variation is evolutionarily advantageous 93

93. Bdelloid Rotifer
Reproduces asexually and has survived as a species for over 40 million years
Live in environments that can dry up for long periods of time
Enter a state of suspended animation
Cell membrane can crack allowing DNA from other rotifers to enter
New DNA becomes incorporated into the rotifer genome
Lead to increased genetic diversity
Figure A bdelloid rotifer, an animal that reproduces only asexually
Figure 10.12 94

94. NON-DISJUNCTION
Occurs when members of the chromosome pair fail to separate during meiosis
Creates too few or too many chromosomes in the daughter cells
Aneuploidy is an abnormal number of chromosomes
Aneuploidy is detected by a karyotype
Monosomy is when a copy of a chromosome is missing
Turner’s Syndrome- an individual has only 1 X chromosome in the 23rd pair, with no additional X or Y chromsome
Trisomy is having an extra copy of a chromosome
Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy-21)- individual has 3 copies of chromosome 21
Klinefelter’s Syndrome- individual’s sex chromosomes are XXY
Poly X Syndrome- individual’s sex chromosomes are XXX
Jacob’s Syndrome- individual’s sex chromsomes are XYY

95. Turner’s Syndrome

96. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

97. Klinefelter’s Syndrome

98. Poly X Syndrome

99. Jacob’s Syndrome