1. Organic Chemistry
All living things are mostly composed of 4 elements: H, O, N, C “honk”
Compounds are broken down into 2 general categories:
Inorganic Compounds:
Do not contain carbon
Organic compounds
Contain significant amounts of carbon.
Often found with common "functional groups"

2. Carbon: The “Swiss Army Knife” of Chemistry.
Carbon is essential to life for several reasons:
It can form strong stable (usually non-polar) covalent bonds
It can form up to 4 chemical bonds
It can form multiple bonds

3. Organic Compounds Organic Compounds often form Polymers
Long chains of smaller molecules (not atoms) called monomers, bind to form huge Macromolecules
4 Types: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins & Nucleic acids

4. Carbohydrates Includes: Sugars, starches, cellulose & glycogen
Made of Carbon ( C ), Hydrogen ( H ), and Oxygen (O )
Following ratio of elements CnH2nOn
Sugars: Provide immediate energy for cells
Simple sugars include Glucose & Fructose since these are made of only 1 Carbohydrate molecule they are known as Monosaccharides
Glucose: A Monosaccharide

5. Dehydration Synthesis
Monosaccharides can be linked together through the process of Dehydration Synthesis
Water is removed from 2 monocaccharides - resulting in a covalent bond between the 2 molecules
Sucrose (table sugar) is made of 2 sugars linked together and these are called Disaccharides
Require some digestion to be used by cells

6. Hydrolysis
Dehydration synthesis is a reversible process Called Hydrolysis.
A water molecule is inserted where the monomers join. Breaking their bonds.

7. Dehydration Synthesis Simplified

8. Hydrolysis Simplified

9. Polysaccharides
Starches are many monosaccharides linked together in a single chain. These are called Polysaccharides.
Plants use Starch for energy storage e.g. Potatoes
Two types of starches
Amylose - Long strait unbranched chains
Pectins - many linked short Amylose chains
Starch

10. Cellulose Cellulose is made of long polysaccharide chains
Plants use this for structure (e.g. Wood) - not very digestible
Due to the reverse orientation of the monosaccharide subunits, digestive enzymes cannot hydrolyze the bonds between them
Cellulose

11. Glycogen Glycogen is a moderately branched polysaccharide
Animals use this for short-term energy storage.
Mostly stored in the human liver until converted to fat
Glycogen

12. Lipids Lipids are macromolecules including Fats, Waxes and Oils.
Primary function is energy storage.
Energy is stored in C-H bonds.
More efficient in storing energy
Lipids are made of 2 parts
Glycerol - an alcohol - Serves as backbone of the molecule
3 Fatty acids - Long hydrocarbon chains

13. Dehydration Synthesis of a Lipid

14. Hydrolysis of a Lipid

15. Types of fats Saturated fats have long chains with no double-bonds
Unsaturated fats have double bonds
Polyunsaturated fats have many double bonds
Each time a double bond is encountered, the molecule "Bends" slightly, resulting in a lower density of the lipid. This makes the molecule more likely to remain liquid at room or body temperatures. And thus, less likely to clog cardiac arteries.

16. Other Lipids 4 Other types of biologically important Lipids
Phospholipids - Important for membrane structure
Steroids - eg. Cholesterol & testosterone. Provide membrane support / serve as hormones
Terpenes - serve as important components of pigments
Prostaglandins - appear to act like localized hormones to induce cellular/tissue responses

17. Proteins Proteins are made of Amino Acids
There are 20 different amino acids. Each having a similar general structure - Differ only in their “R” groups

18. Peptide Bonds
Amino acids form proteins via dehydration synthesis forming peptide bonds
Two amino acids linked together are called dipeptides
More than 2 linked together are called polypeptides - polypeptides can be thousands of amino acids long

19. Dehydration synthesis of a protein

20. Hydrolysis of a Protein

21. Protein Structure
Protein types include globular proteins which are usually enzymes and Fiberous proteins which usually serve for structure (eg. Hair)
Proteins Exhibit 4 “levels of structure.

22. Primary Structure
Primary Structure of a protein is it’s sequence of amino acids
Primary Structure dictates all further levels of protein structure

23. Secondary Structure
The Sequence (primary structure) causes parts of a protein molecule to fold into sheets or bend into helix shapes - this is a protein’s Secondary Structure.

24. Tertiary Structure
The protein then can compact and twist on itself to form a mass called it’s Tertiary Structure

25. Quaternary Structure
Several Proteins then can can combine and form a protein’s Quaternary Structure
Various conformations are usually caused by the formation of hydrogen or disulfide bonds.
PH, changes or heat can disrupt these bonds, permanently denaturing the protein.

26. Nucleic Acids Two types of Nucleic acids DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
DNA is Formed of in a "Double Helix" - like a spiral staircase.

27. Nucleotides DNA is formed from Nucleotides
These are made of 3 components
A 5-Carbon Sugar
A Nitrogenous base
A Phosphate group
Nucleotides form a backbone through linkages from the OH group of the 3rd carbon to a phosphate group of the adjoining nucleotide. These are called Phosphodiester bonds

28. Types of Nucleotides
For DNA There are 4 different Nucleotides categorized as either Purines (double ring) or Pyramidines (single ringed). These are usually represented by a letter. These Are:
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)

29. Base Pairing Rules
Each "Rung" of the DNA "staircase" is formed by the linking of 2 Nucleotides through Hydrogen Bonds.
These Hydrogen bonds form only between specific Nucleotides. This is known as Base Pairing. The rules are as follows:
 Adenine (A) will ONLY bond to Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) will ONLY bond to Guanine (G)

30. Summary of DNA Structure

31. RNA AKA ribonucleic acid
RNA differs from DNA in several important ways.
It is much smaller
It is single-stranded
It does NOT contain Thymine, but rather a new nucleotide called Uracil which will bind to Adenine.

32. Short for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate
Short for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate. ATP is closely related to nucleic acids.
Composed of Ribose, Adenine & a phosphate group
Phosphate group has ability to bind/release additional phosphate group allowing it to store or release energy
ATP