1. The Experiment
Chapter 7

2. Doing Experiments In Everyday Life
Experiments in psychology use the same logic that guides experiments in biology or engineering.
Experimental research is strongest for testing causal relationships.
Experiments most clearly satisfy the three conditions needed to demonstrate causality—temporal order, association, and no alternative explanations.

3. Doing Experiments In Everyday Life
You can do two types of comparisons:
Before-and-after comparison
Side-by-side comparison
You do three things in an experiment:
Start with a cause-effect hypothesis,
Modify a situation or introduce a change,
Compare outcomes with and without the modification.

4. What Questions Can You Answer With the Experimental Method?
Research questions most appropriate for an experiment fit its strengths and limitations. These include:
a clear and simple logic,
the ability to isolate a causal mechanism,
targeted on two or three variables and narrow in scope,
limited by practical and ethical aspects of the situations you can impose on humans.

5. Why Assign People Randomly?
The purpose of random assignment is to create equivalent groups.
Random Assignment = Sort research participants into two or more groups in a mathematically random process.
Matching versus Random Assignment
True matching on more than one or two characteristics is nearly impossible.

6. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
A true experiment includes:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Pretest
Pretest = A measure of the dependent variable prior to introducing the independent variable in an experiment.
Posttest
Posttest = A measure of the dependent variable after the independent variable has been introduced in an experiment.

7. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
A true experiment includes (cont):
Experimental group
Experimental group = In an experiment with multiple groups, a group of participants that receives the independent variable or a high level of it.
Control group
Control Group = In an experiment with multiple groups, a group of participants that does not receive the independent variable or a very low level of it.
Random assignment

8. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Types of Experimental Design
Independent group design = Experimental designs in which you use two or more groups and each gets a different level of the independent variable.
Repeated Measures Design = An experimental design with a single participant group but that receives different levels of the independent variable.

9. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Steps in Conducting an Experiment
Begin with a straightforward hypothesis appropriate for experimental research.
Decide on an experimental design to test the hypothesis within practical limitations.
Decide how to introduce the independent variable.
Develop a valid and reliable measure of the dependent variable.
Set up an experimental setting and conduct a pilot test of the variables.
Locate appropriate participants.

10. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Steps in Conducting an Experiment (cont.)
Randomly assign participants to groups and give careful instructions.
Gather data for the pretest measure of the dependent variable.
Introduce the independent variable to the experimental group only and monitor all groups.
Gather data for posttest measure of the dependent variable.
Debrief the participants.
Examine data collected and make comparisons between different groups using statistics to determine whether the data support the hypothesis.

11. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Managing Experiments
Isolation of effects of independent variable
Elimination of alternative explanations
Confederates = people who work for an experimenter and mislead participants by pretending to be another participant or an uninvolved bystander.

12. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Types of Experimental Design
Experimental design = How parts of an experiment are arranged, often in one of the standard configurations.
True Experimental Designs
Classical experimental design = An experimental design that has all key elements that strengthen its internal validity: random assignment, control and experimental groups, and pretest and protest

13. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Example: Classical Experimental Design

14. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Example: Two-Group Posttest Only Experimental Design

15. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Example: Solomon 4-Group Experimental Design

16. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Example: Latin Square Experimental Design

17. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Types of Experimental Design
True Experimental Designs
Factorial Design = An experimental design in which you examine the impact of combinations of two or more independent variable conditions.
Main Effects = The effect of a single independent variable on a dependent variable.
Interaction Effects = The effect of two or more independent variables in combination on a dependent variable that is beyond or different from the effect that each has alone.

18. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Example: Factorial Experimental Design

19. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Preexperimental designs = Experimental designs that lack one or more parts of the classical experimental design.
One-Shot Case Study Design. (one-group posttest-only design)
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design.  
Static Group Comparison.  (posttest-only nonequivalent group design).

20. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Quasi-experimental Designs = Experimental Designs that approximate the strengths of the classical experimental design but do not contain all its parts.
Interrupted Time Series.  
Equivalent Time Series.  

21. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?

22. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Design notation = A symbol system to express the parts of an experimental design with X, O and R.
O = observation of dependent variable
X = independent variable
R = random assignment.

23. Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?

24. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Looking at an Experiment’s Internal Validity
Internal Validity = The ability to state that the independent variable was the one sure cause that produced a change in the dependent variable.

25. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Threats to Internal Validity
Selection Bias
History
Maturation
Testing
Experimental Mortality
Contamination or Diffusion of Treatment

26. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Threats to Internal Validity
Experimenter Expectancy
Double blind experiment = An experimental design to control experimenter expectancy in which the researcher does not have direct contact with participants. All contact is through assistants from whom some details are withheld.
Placebo = A false or non-effective independent variable given to mislead participants.

27. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
External Validity and Field Experiments
External validity = An ability to generalize experimental findings to events and settings beyond the experimental setting itself.
Threats to external validity:
Participants are not representative
Artificial setting
Artificial treatment

28. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
External Validity and Field Experiments
Threats to external validity (cont)
Reactivity = participants modifying their behavior because they are aware that they are in a study.
Hawthorne effect = a type of experimental reactivity in which participants change due to their awareness of being in a study and the attention they receive from researchers.

29. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
External Validity and Field Experiments
Field experiment = An experiment that takes place in a natural setting and over which experimenters have limited control.
Less internal validity
More external validity

30. Experimental Validity Inside And Out

31. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Natural experiments = Events that were not initially planned to be experiments but permitted measures and comparisons that allowed the use of an experimental logic.
Also called ex post facto—after the fact

32. Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Practical techniques to carry out effective experiments
Planning and Pilot Tests
Instructions to Participants
Post-experiment Interview
Debrief = An interview or talk with participants after an experiment ends in which you remove deception if used and try to learn how they understood the experimental situation

33. Making Comparisons And Looking At Experimental Results

34. How To Be Ethical In Experiments
Experimenters must carefully consult with IRBs.
Deception is acceptable BUT dishonesty is NOT!
Debriefing is a MUST.