1. Chapter 17 الباب السابع عشر
Plants, Fungi, and the Colonization of Land
النباتات والفطريات واستعمار اليابسة
Lecture by Joan Sharp
Translated by Nabih A. Baeshen

2. السكاكر المنتجة بواسطة النبات يتغذي عليها الفطريات
Introduction: Plants and Fungi—A Beneficial Partnership مقدمة : النباتات والفطريات – شراكة منفعة
Plants and fungi colonized land together
استعمرت النباتات والفطريات اليابسة معا
Mycorrhizae, mutually beneficial associations of plant roots and fungi hyphae, enabled plants to colonize land
الميكورازيا ” جذر فطري “ عبارة عن علاقة تبادل المنفعة بين جذور النبات والخيوط الفطرية, والتي مكنت النبات من استعمار اليابسة
Mycorrhizal fungi absorb water, phosphorus, and other minerals from soil and make them available to the plant
يمتص الميكورازيا الماء والفسفور ومعادن أخرى من التربة ويجعلها متاحة للنبات
The sugars produced by the plant nourish the fungus
السكاكر المنتجة بواسطة النبات يتغذي عليها الفطريات
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

3. Mycorrhizal cross section قطاع عرضي في الميكورازيا
Ectomycorrhizae (Boletus) on Red Pine roots (Pinus resinosa)
ميكورازيا خارجية (بوليتس) على جذور الصنوبر الأحمر

4. PLANT EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY
تطور وتنوع النبات
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

5. 17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة
500 million years ago, the algal ancestors of plants formed a green carpet on the edge of lakes and coastal salt marshes
قبل 500 مليون سنة كونت الأسلاف الطحلبية للنبات البساط الأخضر على أطراف البحيرات وسواحل المستنقعات المالحة
Green algae called charophytes are the closest living relatives of plants
الطحالب الخضراء المسماة بالحزازيات الصخرية هي أقرب الأقارب الأحياء للنباتات
Clarify to your students that modern charophytes and plants share a common ancestor, but modern charophytes are not the direct ancestors of plants.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused.
Teaching Tips
1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17.
2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged.
3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible.
4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources.
5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.)
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

6. Coleochaete, a simple charophyte
كوليوشيت ، من الحزازيات الصخرية البسيطة
Figure 17.1B Chara, an elaborate charophyte.
Chara, an elaborate charophyte
الكارا ، طحلب أخضر متعدد الخلايا

7. 17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة
Land plants are a clade, defined by a set of derived characters
نباتات اليابسة عبارة عن فرع تشعبي, يمكن تعريفها بمجموعة من صفات التفريع
Alternation of haploid and diploid generations
تعاقب أجيال العدد الأحادي والثنائي للكروموزومات
Walled spores produced in sporangia
جراثيم جدارية يتم انتاجها في محافظ جرثومية
Male and female gametangia
محافظ مشيجية مذكرة ومؤنثة
Multicellular, dependent sporophyte embryos
أجنة متعددة الخلايا ، معتمدة على النبات الجرثومي
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused.
Teaching Tips
1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17.
2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged.
3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible.
4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources.
5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.)
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8. توفر الحياة على اليابسة فرصاً جديدة
17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة
Life on land offered new opportunities
توفر الحياة على اليابسة فرصاً جديدة
Unlimited sunlightأشعة الشمس اللامحدودة
Abundant CO2وفرة ثاني اُكسيد الكربون
Initially, few pathogens or herbivores
ومنذ البداية ، كانت هناك ندرة للُمُرضات ”التي تسبب المرض للنبات“ وآكلات الأعشاب
Challenges of terrestrial lifeتحديات الحياة على اليابسة
Maintaining moisture within cells الحفاظ على الرطوبة (الماء) داخل الخلايا
Obtaining resources from soil and airالحصول على الاحتياجات اللازمة من التربة والهواء
Supporting body in air دعم الجسم في الهواء
Reproducing and dispersing offspring without water التكاثر ونشر الذرية دون الحاجة للماء
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused.
Teaching Tips
1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17.
2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged.
3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible.
4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources.
5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.)
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. Comparing the terrestrial adaptations of moss,
fern, and pine with Chara, a multicellular green
مقارنة التكيف البري للحزازيات والسرخسيات والصنوبر بالكارا, طحلب أخضر متعدد الخلايا
Key
Vascular
Tissue
أنسجة وعائية
Pollen
حبة لقاح
Leafورقة
Spores
جراثيم
Spores
جراثيم
Flagellated
Sperm
خلية منوية سوطي
Seed
بذرة
Flagellated
Sperm
خلية منوية سوطي
Alga
Water supports
alga. Whole alga
performs photo-
synthesis;
absorbs water,
CO2, and
minerals from
water.
Leaf
ورقة
Stem
جذع
Lea fورقة
Stem
جذع
Rootsجذور
Fern
Stomata; roots anchor plants,
absorb water; lignified cell
walls; vascular tissue;
fertilization requires moisture
Roots
جذور
Stem
جذع
Rootsجذور
Moss
Stomata only on sporophytes;
primitive roots anchor plants,
no lignin; no vascular tissue;
fertilization requires moisture
Figure 17.1C Comparing the terrestrial adaptations of moss, fern, and pine with Chara, a multicellular green.
Flagellated
Sperm
خلية منوية سوطية
Pine tree
Stomata;
roots anchor plants, absorb water;
lignified cell walls; vascular tissue;
fertilization does not require moisture
Holdfast
(anchors alga)
أشباه جذور (تثبت الطحلب)
الطحالب :
الماء يدعم الطحلب ، يقوم الطحلب بأكمله بالبناء الضوئي ، يمتص الماء وثاني أكسيد الكربون والمعادن من الماء
الحزازيات:
ثغور فقط في النبات الجرثومي: جذور بدائية تثبت النبات:
لا يوجد لجنين أو انسجة وعائية ، التخصيب يحتاج رطوبة
السرخسيات:
ثغور: جذور تثبت النبات و تمتص الماء
جدر خلوية مدعمة باللجنين ، انسجة وعائية ، التخصيب يحتاج رطوبة
شجرة الصنوبر:
ثغور: جذور تثبت النبات و تمتص الماء
جدر خلوية مدعمة باللجنين ، انسجة وعائية ،
التخصيب لا يحتاج رطوبة

10. 17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة
In all plants, the zygote develops into an embryo while attached to and nourished by the parent plant
في كل النباتات تتطور اللاقحة إلى جنين أثناء اتصاله وتغذيته بواسطة النبات الأبوي
Plants are embryophytes, with multicellular, dependent embryos
النباتات عبارة عن نباتات ذات أجنة، متعددة الخلايا وتعتمد على النبات الجرثومي
Clarify to your students that natural selection is not a goal-directed process. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused.
Teaching Tips
1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17.
2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged.
3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible.
4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources.
5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.)
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

11. هناك أربعة مفاتيح تكيفية للحياة على اليابسة تميز المسارات
17.2 Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom يعكس التنوع النباتي التاريخ التطوري للمملكة النباتية
Four key adaptations for life on land distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom
هناك أربعة مفاتيح تكيفية للحياة على اليابسة تميز المسارات
الانحدارية الرئيسية لمملكة النباتية
Dependent embryos (characteristic of all plants) الأجنة غير المستقلة (ميزة لكل النباتات)
Lignified vascular tissuesالأنسجة الوعائية المدعمة باللجنين
Seedsالبذور
Flowers الزهور
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored.
2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused.
Teaching Tips
1. An analogy exists between a chicken egg and the first seeds, although the parallels are limited: each consists of a developing embryo enclosed in a water resistant packet, along with a store of food.
2. The support provided by many tightly packed mosses is analogous to the collective support of the many fibers of plush carpeting. Each fiber of carpet and each individual moss plant might easily collapse without the support of its neighbor.
3. The authors describe four key adaptations for life on land in Module The following modules (17.3–17.13) describe how these adaptations distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom. This is consistent with good lecture advice: Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you told them (summarize).
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

12. Some highlights of plant evolution
Liverworts
الحزازيات
الكبدية
Origin of land plants (about 475 mya)
نشأة نباتات اليابسة (قبل حوالي 475 مليون سنة)
Land plantsنباتات اليابسة
Ancestral
green alga
الطحالب الخضراء
السلفي
Nonvascular plants
النباتات اللاوعائية
(bryophytes)
(الجزازيات)
Hornworts
الحزازيات
القرنية 1
Mosses
الحزازيات
القائمة
Lycophytes (club mosses,
spike mosses, quillworts)
الحزازيات السنبلية (الحزازيات انولصولجانية
الحزازيات السنبلية ، الحزازيات الخيشومية)
Origin of vascular plants
(about 425 mya)
نشأة النباتات الوعائية
(قبل حوالي 425 مليون سنة)
النباتات الوعائية
Vascular plants
Seedless
اللابذرية 2
Pterophytes (ferns,
horsetails, whisk ferns)
السرخسيات (السرخسيات ،
الذيل حصانية ، القشية)
Vascular plantsالنباتات الوعائية
Gymnosperms
عاريات البذور
Origin of seed plants
(about 360 mya)
نشأة النباتات البذرية
(قبل حوالي 360مليون سنة) 3
انباتات البذرية
Seed plants
Figure 17.2A Some highlights of plant evolution (dotted lines indicate uncertain evolutionary relationships).
Go through the figure with the students:
Plants originated from algal ancestors ~475 million years ago.
Vascular plants originated 420 million years ago.
Seed plants evolved 360 million years ago.
Angiosperms arose 140 million years ago.
Angiosperms
كاسيات البذور
500
450
400
350
300
Millions of years ago (mya)ملايين الأعوام الماضية
Some highlights of plant evolution
(Dotted lines indicate uncertain evolutionary relationships)
القاء بعض الضوء على تطور النبات (تشير الخطوط المتقطعة إلى علاقة تطورية غير أكيدة)

13. الحزازيات ”نباتات لاوعائية“
Bryophytes
الحزازيات ”نباتات لاوعائية“
Liverwort
الحزازيات الكبدية
Hornwort
الحزازيات القرنية
Figure 17.2B Bryophytes: moss (left), liverwort (top right), hornwort (bottom right).
Moss
حزاز قائم

14. Seedless vascular plants
Figure 17.2C Seedless vascular plants: fern (above) and club moss (right).
Fern
سرخس
Club moss
سرخس طولجاني
Seedless vascular plants
النباتات اللابذرية

15. Gymnospermsعاريات البذور
Cycadالسيكاد
Blue spruce
تنوب أزرق
Ephedraالإفيدرا
Figure 17.2D Gymnosperms: (clockwise from top) blue spruce (a conifer), Ephedra, gingko, Cycad.
Gingkoالجينكو
Gymnospermsعاريات البذور

16. jacaranda treesأشجار الجاكارادنا
Angiospermsكاسيات البذور
Barley grass
نجيل الشعير
jacaranda treesأشجار الجاكارادنا
Figure 17.2E Angiosperms: barley grass (top) and jacaranda (bottom).

17. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS AND PLANT LIFE CYCLES
تعاقب الأجيال ودورات حياة النبات
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

18. The haploid gametophyte produces gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis
17.3 Haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant life cycles تتعاقب الأجيال أحادية العدد الكروموزومي وثنائية العدد الكروموزومي
The haploid gametophyte produces gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis
الجاميطات الأحادية تنتج من جاميطات (البويضات و الحيوانات المنوية) بواسطة الإنقسام الميتوزى (المتساو)
Fertilization results in a diploid zygote
الإخصاب ينتج لاقحة ثنائية العدد الكروموسومى
The zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte, which produces haploid spores by meiosis
Spores grow into gametophytes
Although some algae exhibit alternation of generations, charophytes do not. This life cycle is a derived character of land plants.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students can easily confuse the animal and plant reproductive cycles. However, the unique feature of alternation of generations in plants (and certain algae) makes analogies and parallels challenging and potentially confusing when referencing animal life cycles. One possible relevant exercise would be to compare the timing of mitosis and meiosis in plant and animal life cycles.
Teaching Tips
1. The authors describe four key adaptations for life on land in Module The following modules (17.3–17.13) describe how these adaptations distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom. This is consistent with good lecture advice: Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you told them (summarize).
2. Students might wonder if humans and other animals do not also qualify as having alternation of generations. Although we do have haploid gametes, the haploid and diploid stages do not include multicellular individuals.
For the BLAST Animation Alternation of Generations, go to Animation and Video Files.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

19. Mitosis Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Mitosis Sperm Meiosis Spores (n)
Gametophyte
plant (n)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Mitosis
Sperm
Meiosis
Spores (n)
Gametes (n)
Egg
Fertilization
Zygote (2n)
Figure 17.3 Alternation of generations.
Sporophyte
plant (2n)
Mitosis

20. FUNGI
الفطريات
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21. Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition
17.14 Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies تمتص الفطريات الطعام بعد هضمه خارج أجسادها
Fungi are absorptive heterotrophic eukaryotes that digest their food externally and absorb the nutrients
الفطريات هي كائنات حقيقية النواة غير ذاتية التغذية ماصة لغذائها ، حيث تهضم طعامها خارج أجسادها ثم تمتص المواد المغذية
Most fungi consist of a mass of threadlike hyphae making up a mycelium
تتكون معظم الفطريات من كتلة خيطية تعرف بالخيوط الفطرية مكونة ما يعرف بالغزل الفطري
Hyphal cells are separated by cross-walls with pores large enough for ribosomes, mitochondria, and nuclei to cross
يتم الفصل بين خلايا الخيط الفطري بجدر عرضية بها ثقوب كبيرة بما يكفي لتسمح بمرور الرايبوزومات والميتوكوندريا والأنوية
Some are multinucleate without cross-walls
بعض الخيوط الفطرية عبارة عن مدمج نووي ”متعدد الأنوية“ ليس به جدر عرضية
Hyphae have a huge surface area to secrete digestive enzymes and absorb food
يمتلك الخيط الفطري مساحة سطح ضخمة والتي تفرز إنزيمات هاضمة وتمتص الطعام
Fungal hyphae are surrounded by a cell wall with chitin
الخيط الفطري محاط بجدار خلوي يحتوي على الكايتين
Remind your students that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. The physical relationship between a fungus and its hyphae is analogous to a fire hydrant and the underground water pipes. Only the fire hydrant emerges above the surface of the ground.
2. Ask your students to distinguish between fungi and animals. Both are multicellular heterotrophs lacking cellulose. Students will have to dig a little to discover that fungi have cell walls primarily composed of chitin. You might further challenge them to identify animals that also absorb their nutrients directly from their environments (for example, tapeworms).
Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

22. White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves
Hyphaخيط فطري
Figure 17.14C White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves.
Myceliumغزل فطري
White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves
غزل فطري أبيض شبيه بالخيط لفطر ينمو على أوراق متحللة
A mycelium, made of numerous hyphae
غزل فطري مكون من عدة خيوط فطرية

23. يستطيع العديد من أنواع الفطريات التكاثر جنسياً ولا جنسياً
17.15 Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles تنتج الفطريات جراثيم في كلا دورتي الحياة الجنسية واللاجنسية
Many fungal species can reproduce both sexually and asexually
يستطيع العديد من أنواع الفطريات التكاثر جنسياً ولا جنسياً
Fungi produce huge numbers of asexual spores, each of which can germinate to form a new fungus
تنتج الفطريات أعداداً ضخمة من الجراثيم اللاجنسية ، وكل منها يمكنه الإنبات ليكون فطراً جديداً
In many fungi, sexual fusion of haploid hyphae leads to a heterokaryotic stage, in which cells contain two genetically distinct haploid nuclei
يؤدي الاندماج الجنسي للخيوط الفطرية أحادية العدد الكروموزومي في العديد من الفطريات إلى مرحلة التباين النووي ، حيث تحتوي الخلايا على نواتين أحاديتي العدد الكروموزومي يختلف كل منهما عن الآخر وراثياً
Hours or centuries may pass before parental nuclei fuse to form a short-lived diploid phase
قد تمر الساعات أو القرون قبل أن تندمج الأنوية الأبوية لتكوين طور ثنائي العدد الكروموزومي قصير الحياة
Zygotes undergo meiosis inside specialized reproductive structures and disperse haploid spores
تقوم اللاقحات بالانقسام الاختزالي داخل تراكيب تكاثرية متخصصة ثم تنثر الجراثيم أحادية العدد الكروموزومي
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. The heterokaryotic stage is like the merger of two kingdoms in which both kings continue to rule.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

24. A proposed phylogenetic tree of fungi شجرة تشعب افتراضية للفطريات
Chytrids
الفطريات المائية
Zygomycetes
(zygote fungi)
الفطريات التزاوجية
(الفطريات الزيجوتية)
Glomeromycetes
(arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi)
الفطريات التكافلية
(الفطريات الميكورازية التفرعية)
Ascomycetes
(sac fungi)
الفطريات الزقية
(الفطريات الكيسية)
Figure 17.16A A proposed phylogenetic tree of fungi.
A proposed phylogenetic
tree of fungi
شجرة تشعب افتراضية للفطريات
Basidiomycetes
(club fungi)
الفطريات البازيدية
(الفطريات الصولجانية)

25. تشمل هذه المجموعة عفن الخبز الأسود
17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع
Zygomycetesالفطريات التزاوجية (الزيجوتية)
Zygote fungi form resistant zygosporangia in which haploid spores form by meiosis
تُكون الفطريات الزيجوتية محافظ جرثومية مقاومة والتي تتكون بها الجراثيم أحادية العدد الكروموزومي بواسطة الانقسام الاختزالي
This group includes black bread mold
تشمل هذه المجموعة عفن الخبز الأسود
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at
The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

26. Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold
Figure 17.16B Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold.
Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold
الفطريات التزاوجية : ريزوبوس ستولونيفير (عفن الخبز الأسود)

27. 90% من النباتات لديها علاقات تكافلية مع الفطريات التكافلية
17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع
Glomeromycetesالفطريات التكافلية
These fungi form mycorrhizae, in which invasive hyphae branch into treelike arbuscules within plant roots
تكون هذه الفطريات ميكورازيا ، حيث تتفرع خيوطها الفطرية إلى تفرعات شبيهة بتفرع الشجر غازية جذور النبات ومتعمقة فيها
90% of plants have symbiotic partnerships with glomeromycetes
90% من النباتات لديها علاقات تكافلية مع الفطريات التكافلية
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at
The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

28. Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell
Figure 17.16C Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell.
Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell
الفطريات التكافلية : تفرع شجري في خلية جذرية

29. تكون بعضها أشناتاً بالاشتراك مع طحالب خضراء أو سيانوبكتيريا
17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تٌصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع
Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية
Sac fungi form saclike asci, which produce sexual spores
تكون الفطريات الكيسية زقاقاً شبيهة بالأكياس والتي تنتج الجراثيم الجنسية
They range in size from yeasts to elaborate morels and cup fungi
تتنوع في أحجامها ابتداءً من الخمائر المجهرية وإلى الغوشنات ”فطريات صالحة للأكل“ المتطورة والفطريات الكأسية
Some form lichens in association with green algae or cyanobacteria
تكون بعضها أشناتاً بالاشتراك مع طحالب خضراء أو سيانوبكتيريا
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at
The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

30. Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية
Figure 17.16D Ascomycetes: edible morels (left) and cup fungus (right).
Cup fungus
فطريات كأسية
Edible morels
غوشنات صالحة للأكل
Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية

31. Basidiomycetesالفطريات البازيدية
17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع
Basidiomycetesالفطريات البازيدية
Club fungi are the mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi
الفطريات الصولجانبة هي فطريات عيش الغراب ، الكرات النافثة ، والفطريات الرفيه
They have club-shaped spore-producing structures called basidia
لديها تراكيب صولجانية الشكل منتجة للجراثيم تسمى بالبازيديا
These fungi are important forest decomposers
هذه الفطريات هي محللات هامة في الغابات
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at
The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

32. Puffball كرة نافثة shelf fungi الفطريات الرفيه
Mushroomsعيش الغراب
Puffball
كرة نافثة
Figure 17.16E Basidiomycetes (club fungi): mushrooms (left), puffball (center), and shelf fungi (right).
shelf fungi
الفطريات الرفيه
Basidiomycetes (club fungi)الفطريات البازيدية (الفطريات الصولجانية)

33. 17.18 CONNECTION: Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals رابطة تطبيقية : تلحق الفطريات الطفيلية الضرر بالنبات والحيوانات
80% of plant diseases are caused by fungi
تسبب الفطريات 80% من أمراض النبات
Between 10 and 50% of the world’s fruit harvest is lost each year to fungal attack
يتراوح الفقد السنوي من حصاد الفاكهة ما بين 10 إلى 50% لتعرضها لهجوم الفطريات
A variety of fungi, including smuts and rusts, infect grain crops
تصيب أنواع مختلفة من الفطريات بما فيها فطريات السخاميات والصدأ محاصيل الحبوب
Only 50 species of fungi are parasitic on animals, causing mycoses
يتطفل 50 نوع من الفطريات فقط على الحيوانات فيسبب العدوى الفطرية
Human infections include athlete’s foot (caused by ringworm)
تشمل اصابات الإنسان قدم الرياضي (يسببه فطر الدودة المستديرة)
Systemic mycoses are rare but serious fungal infections that spread through the body from inhaled spores
العدوى الفطرية الجهازية نادرة ولكنها اصابات فطرية خطيرة حيث تنتشر عبر الجسد من استنشاق الجراثيم
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process. Like the elm trees described in Module 17.18, American chestnut trees were nearly driven to extinction because they did not possess adaptations that would have helped them survive the blight fungus. If evolution results from need, why then would the chestnuts or elm trees suffer? (For details on the chestnut blight, see the website of the American Phytopathological Society at feature/chestnut/.
2. Module describes a variety of examples of fungal disease, noting that 80% of plant diseases are from fungi, including infections such as athlete’s foot, ringworm, vaginal yeast infections, and toxic growths on crops. If certain fungal infections are particularly problematic in your region, consider emphasizing them in your lecture.
3. Module concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest.
For the Discovery Video Fungi, go to Animation and Video Files.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

34. تفحمات على نبات الجاودار
Ergots
تفحمات
Figure 17.18B Corn smut.
Ergots on rye
تفحمات على نبات الجاودار
Corn smut
سُخام الذرة

35. 17.19 Lichens consist of fungi living in close association with photosynthetic organisms تتألف الأشنات من فطريات تعيش مرتبطة ارتباطاً وثيقاً مع كائنات تقوم بعملية البناء الضوئي
Lichens consist of algae or cyanobacteria within a fungal network
تتألف الأشنات من طحالب او سيانوبكتيريا متخلله شبكة فطرية
Many lichen associations are mutualistic
العديد من ارتباطات الأشنات هي ارتباطات تبادل منفعة
The fungus receives food from its photosynthetic partner
يتلقي الفطر الطعام من شريكه الذي يقوم بعملية البناء الضوئي
The fungal mycelium helps the alga absorb and retain water and minerals
يساعد الغزل الفطري الطحلب على امتصاص وحفظ الماء والمعادن
Lichens are important pioneers on new land, where they help to form soil
الأشنات من الرواد المهمين في الأرض الحديثة, حيث تساعد في تكوين التربة
Lichens are sensitive to air pollution, because they obtain minerals from the air
الأشنات حساسة لتلوث الهواء لأنها تحصل على المعادن من الهواء
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. Wonderful coverage of lichens can be found at the aptly named
2. Module concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

36. Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica
Figure 17.19A Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica.
Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica
العديد من مئات الأنواع من الأشنات التي تستوطن أنتاركتيكا“القطب المتجمد الجنوبي“

37. Fungal hyphae الخيط الفطري Algal cell خلية طحلبية
Figure 17.19B The close relationship between fungal and algal partners in a lichen.
The close relationship between
fungal and algal partners in a lichen
العلاقة الوثيقة بين شريكين فطري وطحلبي في أشن

38. 17.20 Some fungi have mutually beneficial relationships with ants بعض الفطريات لها علاقات تبادل منفعة مع النمل
Several species of ants and termites cultivate fungal gardens
تحرث العديد من أنواع النمل والنمل الابيض حدائق فطرية
The insects feed their fungi with leaves, weeding out undesirable fungi
تغذي الحشرات فطرياتها بأوراق النبات وتزيل الفطريات غير المرغوب فيها
The fungi feed on the leaves
تتغذى الفطريات على الأوراق
The ants harvest the swollen hyphal tips
يحصد النمل قمم الغزل الفطرية المنتفخة
Farmer insects and fungal “crops” have been evolving together for over 50 million years
الحشرات المزارعة و “المحاصيل“ الفطرية تطورتا معاً خلال ما يزيد عن 50 مليون سنة
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. The details of the relationship between leaf-cutter ants and the fungi they cultivate make for a fascinating biological study. As time permits, additional details of this story can provide a delightful diversion during the semester. (One excellent resource is the website accompanying the Evolution series produced by PBS. Additional details and an extended video clip on leaf-cutter ants are available for free at
2. Module concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest.
For the Discovery Video Leafcutter Ants, go to Animation and Video Files.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

39. Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi
Figure Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi.
Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi
النمل قاطع الأوراق يحمل الأوراق ليطعم بها الفطريات

40. 17.21 CONNECTION: Fungi have enormous ecological benefits and practical uses رابطة تطبيقية : للفطريات العديد من الفوائد البيئية والاستخدامات العملية
Fungi have many practical uses for humans
للفطريات العديد من الاستخدامات العملية للإنسان
Some fungi can break down toxic pollutants, including pesticides like DDT and cancer-causing chemicals
تستطيع بعض الفطريات تكسير الملوثات السامة بما فيها مبيدات الآفات كالدي دي تي والكيماويات المسببة للسرطان
Fungi may be able to clean up oil spills and chemical messes
قد تتمكن الفطريات من تنظيف بقع الزيت والمشاكل الكيميائية
We eat many fungi, from mushrooms to cheeses modified by fungi
نحن نأكل الفطريات ابتداءً من فطر عيش الغراب وحتى الأجبان المصنوعة بواسطة الفطريات
Yeasts produce alcohol and cause bread to rise
تنتج الخمائر الكحول وتسبب انتفاخ الخبز
Fungi provide antibiotics that are used to treat bacterial disease
توفر الفطريات مضادات حيوية تستخدم لعلاج الامراض البكتيرية
Fungi are playing important new roles in molecular biology and biotechnology
تلعب الفطريات أدواراً جديدة هامة في البيولوجيا الجزيئية والتقنية الحيوية
Students are unlikely to appreciate the extent to which humans interact with fungi. Clarify for your students the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, fuels, bioremediation, and alcoholic beverages, as well as the many fungal diseases of crops.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge.
2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group.
Teaching Tips
1. Module concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

41. Blue cheese الجبن الأزرق Penicillium بينيسيليوم Zone of inhibited
growth
منطقة تثبيط النمو
Staphylococcus aureus
ستافيلوكوكس أوريوس
Figure 21B A culture of Penicillium and bacteria.
Culture of Penicillium and bacteria
مزرعة من البينيسيليوم وبكتيريا

42. Leaves carry out photosynthesis
Reproductive structures, as in flowers,
contain spores and gametes
Cuticle covering leaves and stems
reduces water loss
Stomata in leaves allow gas exchange
between plant and atmosphere
Lignin hardens cell walls of some
plant tissues
Stem supports plant; may perform
photosynthesis
Vascular tissues in shoots and roots
transport water, minerals, and sugars;
provide support
Roots anchor plant; mycorrhizae (root-
fungus associations) help absorb water
and minerals from the soil

43. You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب
1. Describe the key plant adaptations for life on land
صف التكيفات الرئيسية للبنات للعيش على اليابسة
2. Describe the alternation of generation life cycle; explain why it appears that this cycle has evolved independently in algae and land plants
صف دورة حياة تعاقب الأجيال: اشرح لماذا يبدو أن هذه الدورة قد ظهرت بصورة مستقلة في كل من الطحالي والنباتات الأرضية
3. Describe the key events of the moss, fern, and pine life cycles
صف الأحداث الرئيسية لدورة حياة الحزازيات, السرخسيات والصنوبريات
4. Explain how coal was formed; explain why coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil fuels
اشرح كيف تكون الفحم النباتي: اشرح سبب تسمية الفحم البناتي, زيت البترول, والغاز الطبيعي بالوقود الأحفوري
5. Describe the parts of a flower and explain their functions
صف أجزاء الزهرة واشرح وظائفها
6. Describe the stages of the angiosperm life cycle
صف مراحل دورة حياة النباتات كاسيات البذور
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

44. You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب
7. Describe angiosperm adaptations that promote seed dispersal
صف تكيفات كاسيات البذور التي تساعد على انتثار البذور وانتشارها
8. Explain how flowers are adapted to attract pollinators
اشرح كيفية تكيف الزهور لاجتذاب الملقحون
9. Compare the life cycles and reproductive structures in the fungal groups
قارن بين دورات الحياة وتركيب أعضاء التكاثر في المجاميع الفطرية
10. Describe the structure and characteristics of lichens
صف تركيب وخصائص الأشنات
11. Describe the positive ecological and practical roles of fungi
صف الأدوار البيئية والعملية الإيجابية للفطريات
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