1. Starter How many key individuals in medicine can you name?
Merits to the person with the most…

2. Who is the greatest throughout history?
Key individuals
Who is the greatest throughout history?
Aim: To explain (B) the significance of key individuals in medicine before evaluating (A) who was the most important.

3. Factors in their success
Individuals
When?
Why Important?
Factors in their success
Problems
Hippocrates
5th or 4th Century BC
Believed and taught that Medicine was a natural, not supernatural.
Developed the ideas of clinical observation (watching the patient and recording the symptoms) and the theory of the 4 humours.
Education – Hippocrates and his followers published the Hippocratic Collection, which contained his views on medicine and different recorded illnesses. These spread through the Greek world and later through Asia due to Alexander the Great’s success.
Idea of 4 humours was wrong.
Claudius
Galen
2nd C
Took Hippocrates’ ideas to Rome.
Developed the theory of opposites – his view of medicine was unchallenged for centuries.
Also developed knowledge of anatomy by dissecting animals.
Luck – he became doctor for the Emperor and his ideas spread across the Roman Empire which reached across Europe and into Asia and Africa.
Religion – Rome became the centre of Christianity and they adopted Galen’s theories which were accepted without question until the Renaissance.
4 Humours and therefore Theory of Opposites was wrong. Animals have different anatomies.
Andreas Vesalius
16th C
Challenged Galen’s ideas.
Published books that corrected Galen’s earlier mistakes on Anatomy.
Led to further research and understanding of the human body.
Education- Padua was a renowned school of learning that allowed the dissection of human corpses.
Technology- Printing made ideas easier to communicate.
Able to build on the much earlier works of Galen.
A better understanding of anatomy didn’t help anyone at the time.
Ambroise Pare
Developed new ways of dealing with battlefield wounds.
Introduced ligatures as a less painful way of sealing severed blood vessels.
Luck – He ran out of hot oil during a battle and had to find a new way to deal with gunshot wounds.
Education – Used knowledge of previous treatments to develop new ones.
Technology – Printing: made his ideas easier to communicate.
No knowledge of germs – meant ligatures carried infection into the wound. Early resistance to ideas.
William Harvey
17th C
Discovered and proved that the heart works like a pump.
Worked out that blood is circulated around the body.
Published his findings.
Education– He worked on the theories already developed by his predecessors at Padua.
Experimentation and recording of findings.
Attitudes – he treated the King.
Technology - Printing: made his ideas easier to communicate.
Understanding of circulation didn’t help people at the time.

4. Factors in their success
Individuals
When?
Why Important?
Factors in their success
Problems
Edward Jenner
18th/19th C
He experimented with the Cowpox disease and worked out that it could be used to stop the deadly Smallpox illness.
His idea of vaccination against Smallpox became very popular.
Better education for doctors – scientific and anatomical training was necessary to qualify.
Knowledge of traditional treatments, he just tried to work out how he could extend the idea.
A willingness to experiment and record his findings scientifically.
Resistance to his ideas from others. Lack of Govt. interest in compulsory vaccination.
Ignaz Semmelweiss
19th C
He worked out that washing before a medical procedure reduced the risk of infection. He reduced death rates in his hospital by enforcing cleanliness in medical students before they examined patients.
Education- He tested his theory across two wards and lectured on the findings ( ).
He lectured on his theory and published a book in 1861.
He was ignored. Doctors didn’t want to accept they caused death and claimed washing took too much time
James Simpson
Discovered the use of Chloroform as an anaesthetic. (1847)
Campaigned for increased use of anaesthetics in surgery and childbirth. Queen Victoria used it as one of his patients.
Education- Chemistry allowed the development of new drugs. Previous work on anaesthetics by Humphrey Davey and others showed the way.
Chloroform had already been developed for other purposes.
Attitudes- As doctor to the Queen, his ideas became popular.
Opposition to his new ideas.
Surgery could take longer = more death.
Overdose = death.
Robert Liston
The first European surgeon to use anaesthetics during an operation.
A well-known speed surgeon.
Famous for managing to kill three people in one operation (two due to infection and blood poisoning).
Education- Prior development of anaesthetics in the USA and the publishing of the results meant that knowledge was passed between doctors.
Notoriety from his earlier success as a speed surgeon at a large hospital.
Mistook aneurism for abscess = death.
Removed testicles by accident.
300% mortality rate in 1 operation.
Edwin Chadwick
19thC
Reported on the effects of poverty and poor living conditions on health and recommended Public Health Reform (1847). This led to a Public Health Act (1848).
Government- Gave Chadwick the job of investigating sanitation and, eventually, introduced his recommendations.
1848 Act was mainly voluntary and many towns ignored it. Some changes were reversed later.

5. Factors in their success
Individuals
When?
Why Important?
Factors in their success
Problems
Dr John Snow
19th C
He established the link between Cholera and infected water by examining an outbreak in London (1854), he got the pump disabled.
He also worked out safe doses of anaesthetics and treated Victoria.
Attitudes- He had treated Queen Victoria with Chloroform and therefore was respected as a doctor.
He developed the idea of plotting the outbreaks of disease on a map so that patterns could be seen – this helped the study of epidemics.
Technology- He published his findings.
He couldn’t prove why the illness spread and it didn’t lead to better water generally.
Florence Nightingale
Professionalised nursing and improved conditions in hospitals, first during the Crimean War and later in UK. Started a nurses Training School and wrote ‘Notes on Nursing’ both in 1860.
Religion- Felt that God called her to work.
Government: Asked her to go to Scutari and supported her efforts for change.
War- Crimean War success made her famous and allowed ideas to spread.
She spent the second half of her life as an invalid and directed things from her bedroom.
Louis Pasteur
Developed Germ Theory (1864) – proved that germs held in the air led to decomposition.
Develops vaccines for Chicken Cholera, Anthrax and Rabies.
Technology- The microscope: allowed him to study microbes.
Government support and National rivalry meant that his projects received funds and equipment.
Luck – His chickens were given the wrong disease and he was able to work out why they survived.
Robert Koch
Discovered the actual microbes that caused diseases such as Cholera and Tuberculosis.
Found a way to make the microbes easy to see and therefore easier to study.
Technology- The microscope – allowed him to study microbes.
Education- Scientific Research techniques meant that he recorded everything in detail to allow others to study his findings further.
Joseph Lister
Used Carbolic Acid spray as an antiseptic during surgery in order to kill the germs in the air. ( )
This cut his post-operative mortality rate to 5%.
Education- Pasteur’s work on Germ Theory. He used this idea to try to cut deaths from infection.
Prior knowledge – Carbolic Acid had been used before to make sewage safe as a fertiliser.
Technology- Publishing – the growth of medical journals meant new ideas could be easily shared.
Opposition to his new ideas.
Carbolic acid irritated the skin and eyes of surgeons.

6. Factors in their success Problems
Individuals
When?
Why Important?
Factors in their success
Problems
Elizabeth Garret Anderson
19th C
First woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain (1865). She faced continued male opposition to her career. Started the New Hospital for Women in London. Women allowed in Medicine from 1876.
Education- She qualified through the Society of Apothecaries, was inspired by first American female doctor Elizabeth Blackwell. She learned French do she could study in Paris where women were allowed.
The Government eventually passed a law to allow women to study Medicine.
She was a woman in a very sexist male dominated world.
Joseph Bazalgette
As Chief Engineer in London he designed and supervised a new sewage system ( ) that carried waste to treatment plants. He also built it big, so it continues to work until the present day.
Government- Appointed and supported the development after Cholera outbreak killed 10,000 (1853/4) and the ‘Great Stink’ (1858).
Technology- Sewage processing plants.
Dealing with sewage did make him ill – but he got better.
Alexander Fleming
20th C
He identified and published the discovery of penicillin, an anti-biotic mould that killed bacteria (1928).
Luck: He was studying bacteria and returned to find mould in one dish that was killing it.
He was able to see the importance of this and then conducted experiments to show it killed other types of bacteria.
Technology- He published his findings in scientific journals.
His findings were mainly ignored.
It was difficult for him to produce penicillin in enough quantity.
William Beveridge
Produced a report about ways to fight the 5 ‘Giant Evils’; ‘Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness’(1942). This led to the development of the NHS and Welfare State after 1945.
Government- Wartime coalition government asked for the report on how Britain should be rebuilt after the war. The 1945 Labour government introduced the measures.
War: WW2 and people’s hardship built support for the suggested reforms.
Ernest Chain and Howard Florey
They developed the way to mass produce penicillin which has since saved thousands of lives and made many other better more quickly.
Education- Fleming’s research. Scientific Research: They were researchers from Oxford University who worked together.
War: WW2 and especially the US involvement provided the funding to develop penicillin in large quantities. US drug companies provided facilities.
In the early days they also found production difficult and one patient improved then died when they ran out.

7. Evaluation Technique
Our table is missing some individuals… Can you name them? You need to add them into the table…
Aim: To explain (B) the significance of key individuals in medicine before evaluating (A) who was the most important.

8. Methods– how they did it Factors to their success
What they discovered
Methods– how they did it
Factors to their success
Who is the most significant people and why? Why are they more significant than others?
Consequences
Did it advance medicine?
Were there any limitations?

9. Examination technique
Choose one of the medical pioneers below:
Galen
Hippocrates
What did he do? (4)
Who made the greatest contribution to medicine at this time? (8)
Aim: To explain (B) the significance of key individuals in medicine before evaluating (A) who was the most important.

10. Source work
1a. What does Source A suggest about the treatment of disease at the time of the early
Greeks?
Explain your answer using Source A and your knowledge. (4)
1b. What different treatment of disease is suggested by Source B?
Explain your answer using Sources A and B and your knowledge.(6)
Aim: To explain (B) the significance of key individuals in medicine before evaluating (A) who was the most important.