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ChooseMyPlate.gov Dairy Fruits Grains Vegetables Protein Fig. 17.1

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1 ChooseMyPlate.gov Dairy Fruits Grains Vegetables Protein Fig. 17.1
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Dairy Fruits Grains Vegetables Protein ChooseMyPlate.gov

2 Fig Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Mouth (salivary glands) Salivary amylase Polysaccharides, Disaccharides Stomach Pepsin Polypeptides Duodenum (pancreas, liver) Bile salts (liver) Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase (pancreas) Pancreatic amylase Lipase (pancreas) Disaccharides Peptides Epithelium of small intestine Disaccharidases Peptidases Monosaccharides Fatty acids Monoglycerides Amino acids

3 Triglyceride molecule
Fig. 2.12 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. H O H H H H H H O H H H H H H C OH HO C C C C C C – H H C O C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H O H H H H H Enzymes H C OH HO – C C C C C C H H C O C C C C C C H H H H H H 3 H2O H H H H H O H H H H H O H H H H H H C OH HO C C C C C C – H H C O C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H Fatty acids Glycerol Triglyceride molecule

4 Bile salt (glycocholate) Testosterone
Fig. 2.15 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. CH3 CH3 CH CH2CH2CH2CH OH CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 Cholesterol HO HO Estrogen (estradiol) CH3 O CH CH2CH2 C NH CH2 C OH OH CH3 O– CH3 O CH3 CH3 HO OH O Bile salt (glycocholate) Testosterone

5 Polar (hydrophilic) region Nonpolar (hydrophobic) region
Fig. 2.14 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nitrogen Polar (hydrophilic) region (phosphate- containing region) Phosphorus Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nonpolar (hydrophobic) region (fatty acids) (a) (b)

6 Double bond Double bond Double bond
Fig. 2.13 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H HO C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Palmitic acid (saturated) (a) H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H H C C C C C C HO C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Double bond Double bond Double bond Linolenic acid (unsaturated) (b)

7 Fig. 2.16 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. (a) Two examples of amino acids. Each amino acid has an amine group (—NH2) and a carboxyl group (—COOH). H CH3 H H Amino acid (alanine) H N C C OH H N C C OH Amino acid (glycine) H O H O H2O (b) The individual amino acids are joined. H CH3 H H H N C C N C C OH H O H O H H N HO O (c) A protein consists of a chain of different amino acids (represented by different- colored spheres). C C C H N C O H C C O H N C N C C C H H O (d) A three-dimensional representation of the amino acid chain shows the hydrogen bonds (dotted red lines) between different amino acids. The hydrogen bonds cause the amino acid chain to become folded or coiled. N H O C C N C C N O C N H C O O C C H C H N C O N H C C N C O H N O O C C C H H C N H O C N C C N C O O C N H H O C C C N H H N C O C O C N Folded C O H N Coiled O C C (e) An entire protein has a complex three-dimensional shape.

8 Table 17.2

9 Table 17.3

10 Fig. 17.3 1 ATP Production The energy released during catabolism
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 ATP Production The energy released during catabolism can be used to synthesize ATP. P P P Catabolism ATP Anabolism Catabolism is the energy- releasing process by which larger molecules are broken down to smaller ones. Ingested food is the source of molecules used in catabolic reactions. Anabolism is the energy- requiring process by which smaller molecules join to form larger ones. Anabolic reactions result in the synthesis of the molecules necessary for life. Energy Energy P P P ADP + Pi 2 ATP Breakdown The energy released from the breakdown of ATP can be used during anabolism to synthesize other molecules and to provide energy for cellular processes, such as active transport and muscle contraction.

11 Fig. 17.6 1 Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

12 Fig. 17.6 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules and produces two ATP and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

13 Fig. 17.6 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules and produces two ATP and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 The two pyruvic acid molecules produced in glycolysis are converted to two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain. Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

14 Fig. 17.6 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules and produces two ATP and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 The two pyruvic acid molecules produced in glycolysis are converted to two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain. Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, which produces four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to the electron-transport chain. 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

15 Fig. 17.6 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules and produces two ATP and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 The two pyruvic acid molecules produced in glycolysis are converted to two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain. Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, which produces four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to the electron-transport chain. 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 The electron-transport chain uses NADH and FADH2 to produce 34 ATP. This process requires O2, which combines with H+ to form H2O. 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

16 Fig. 17.7 Mitochondrion Cytosol Outer membrane H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Mitochondrion Cytosol Outer membrane H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ Carrier protein H+ H+ H+ Outer compartment H+ 2 H+ H+ H+ ATP ATP synthase 2e– H+ H+ H+ Pi ADP Inner membrane I II III 2e– IV Inner compartment 2e– + ADP 2e– 2e– Pi NADH H+ 1 FADH2 H+ H+ ATP 2e– NAD+ H2O 2H+ H+ 4 3 1 O2 2 1 NADH or FADH2 transfer their electrons to the electron-transport chain. 2 As the electrons move through the electron-transport chain, some of their energy is used to pump H+ into the outer compartment, resulting in a higher concentration of H+ in the outer than in the inner compartment. 3 The H+ diffuse back into the inner compartment through special channels (ATP synthase) that couple the H+ movement with the production of ATP. The electrons, H+, and O2 combine to form H2O. 4 ATP is transported out of the inner compartment by a carrier protein that exchanges ATP for ADP. A different carrier protein moves phosphate into the inner compartment.

17 Fig. 17.6 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Glycolysis in the cytoplasm converts glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules and produces two ATP and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glucose (six-carbon molecule) Cytoplasm 1 Glycolysis 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid (three-carbon molecules) 2 The two pyruvic acid molecules produced in glycolysis are converted to two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing two CO2 and two NADH. The NADH can go to the electron-transport chain. Outer mitochondrial membrane 4 6 O2 Electron-transport chains Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 CO2 6 H2O 3 The two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, which produces four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two ATP. The NADH and FADH2 can go to the electron-transport chain. 34 ATP 2 NADH 2 2 acetyl-CoA (two-carbon molecules) 2 citric acid (six-carbon molecules) 4 The electron-transport chain uses NADH and FADH2 to produce 34 ATP. This process requires O2, which combines with H+ to form H2O. 2 four-carbon molecules 3 4 CO2 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH2

18 Table 17.2

19 Fig. 17.9 Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the digestive tract and carried by the blood to the liver. Amino acids Triglycerides Glucose Nutrients Processed The liver converts nutrients into energy-storage molecules, such as glycogen, fatty acids, and triglycerides. Amino acids are also used to synthesize proteins, such as plasma proteins. Fatty acids and triglycerides produced by the liver are released into the blood. Nutrients not processed by the liver are also carried by the blood to tissues. Proteins Nonessential amino acids Glycogen Glycerol  -keto acids Acetyl-CoA Fatty acids Ammonia Urea Energy Nutrients Stored and Used Nutrients are stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides and in muscle as glycogen. Nutrients also are a source of energy for tissues. Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins. Amino acids Glucose Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Glycerol Energy Proteins Glycogen Energy Muscle Triglycerides Most tissues (including muscle and adipose) Nervous tissue Adipose tissues

20 Fig

21 Fig. 17.9 Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the digestive tract and carried by the blood to the liver. Amino acids Triglycerides Glucose Nutrients Processed The liver converts nutrients into energy-storage molecules, such as glycogen, fatty acids, and triglycerides. Amino acids are also used to synthesize proteins, such as plasma proteins. Fatty acids and triglycerides produced by the liver are released into the blood. Nutrients not processed by the liver are also carried by the blood to tissues. Proteins Nonessential amino acids Glycogen Glycerol  -keto acids Acetyl-CoA Fatty acids Ammonia Urea Energy Nutrients Stored and Used Nutrients are stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides and in muscle as glycogen. Nutrients also are a source of energy for tissues. Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins. Amino acids Glucose Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Glycerol Energy Proteins Glycogen Energy Muscle Triglycerides Most tissues (including muscle and adipose) Nervous tissue Adipose tissues

22 Fig

23 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) Phospholipid (20%)
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig Chylomicron Phospholipid (4%) Triglyceride (90%) Cholesterol (5%) Protein (1%) Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) Phospholipid (20%) Triglyceride (10%) Cholesterol (45%) Protein (25%) High-density lipoprotein (HDL) Phospholipid (30%) Triglyceride (5%) Cholesterol (20%) Protein (45%)

24 Fig. 17.9 Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nutrients Absorbed Nutrients are absorbed from the digestive tract and carried by the blood to the liver. Amino acids Triglycerides Glucose Nutrients Processed The liver converts nutrients into energy-storage molecules, such as glycogen, fatty acids, and triglycerides. Amino acids are also used to synthesize proteins, such as plasma proteins. Fatty acids and triglycerides produced by the liver are released into the blood. Nutrients not processed by the liver are also carried by the blood to tissues. Proteins Nonessential amino acids Glycogen Glycerol  -keto acids Acetyl-CoA Fatty acids Ammonia Urea Energy Nutrients Stored and Used Nutrients are stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides and in muscle as glycogen. Nutrients also are a source of energy for tissues. Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins. Amino acids Glucose Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Fatty acids Glucose Glycerol Energy Proteins Glycogen Energy Muscle Triglycerides Most tissues (including muscle and adipose) Nervous tissue Adipose tissues

25 Fig. 17.8 Food Lipid Carbohydrate Protein Monosaccharides
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Food Lipid Carbohydrate Protein Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) Fatty acids Glycerol Glycolysis Ketones Pyruvic acid Acetyl-CoA Amino acids Citric acid cycle -keto acid NADH Ammonia ATP CO2 Urea NADH FADH2 O2 Electron- transport chain H2O ATP

26 Fig. 17.10 Stored Nutrients Used Stored energy molecules are used
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stored Nutrients Used Stored energy molecules are used as sources of energy: Glycogen is converted to glucose, and triglycerides are converted to fatty acids. Molecules released from tissues are carried by the blood to the liver. Muscle Adipose tissue Most tissues (including muscle) Nervous tissue Proteins Glycogen Triglycerides Energy Energy Amino acids Glucose Glycerol Fatty acids Fatty acids Ketone bodies Glucose Energy Energy Nutrients Processed The liver processes molecules to produce additional energy sources: Glycogen and amino acids are converted to glucose and fatty acids to ketones. Glucose and ketones are released into the blood and are transported to tissues. Lactic acid Glycerol Fatty acids Acetyl-CoA Ketone bodies Glycogen Energy Glucose -keto acid Amino acids Ammonia Urea Energy

27 Fig

28 Fig

29 Fig

30 Fig

31 ©M.M. Sweet/Flickr/Getty Images RF
Fig Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Radiation from sun and water Evaporation Convection from cool breeze Radiation from sand Conduction from hot sand ©M.M. Sweet/Flickr/Getty Images RF

32 Fig Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3 4 Actions Reactions Effectors Respond: Increased sweating increases evaporative heat loss. Receptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect increases in body temperature. The control center in the hypothalamus activates heat loss mechanisms. Dilation of skin blood vessels increases heat loss from the skin. Behavioral modifications, such as taking off a jacket or seeking a cooler environment, increase heat loss. 2 Homeostasis Disturbed: Body temperature increases. Homeostasis Restored: Body temperature decreases. 5 Body temperature (normal range) Body temperature (normal range) 1 Start here 6 Homeostasis Disturbed: Body temperature decreases. Homeostasis Restored: Body temperature increases. Actions Reactions Effectors Respond: Receptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect decreases in body temperature. The control center in the hypothalamus activates heat-conserving and heat-generating mechanisms. Constriction of skin blood vessels decreases heat loss from the skin. Shivering increases heat production. Behavioral modifications, such as putting on a jacket or seeking a warmer environment, decrease heat loss.

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