1. Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies

2. Descriptive Methods

3. Descriptive Methods
Descriptive methods do not involve manipulation of an independent variable.

4. Descriptive Methods Descriptive Methods
Do not involve manipulation of an independent variable
When we use descriptive methods, we can only speculate about causation that may be involved.

5. Descriptive Methods
Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data

6. Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes

7. Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes
(e.g. public health and census data)

8. Descriptive Methods http://www.icpsr.umich.edu:8080/GSS/
Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes
(e.g. public health and census data)
The General Social Survey is an archival source that can be accessed online

9. Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Potential Problems
You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating.

10. Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Potential Problems
You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating.
The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write.
This problem is also known as selective deposit.

11. Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Potential Problems
You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating.
The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write.
Archival and previously recorded sources of data may not survive long enough for you to make use of them.

12. Descriptive Methods
Comparisons with the Experimental Method

13. Descriptive Methods Comparisons with the Experimental Method
We are not able to exercise any control with regard to gathering these data and cannot make any statements regarding cause-and-effect.

14. Descriptive Methods
Observational Techniques

15. Descriptive Methods
Observational Techniques
Case studies

16. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Case studies
Involves intense observation and recording of behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s) over an extended period of time.

17. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Case studies
Involves intense observation and recording of behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s) over an extended period of time.
There are no guidelines for conducting a case study and the procedures employed, behaviors observed, and reports produced may vary substantially.

18. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Case studies
Involves intense observation and recording of behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s) over an extended period of time.
There are no guidelines for conducting a case study and the procedures employed, behaviors observed, and reports produced may vary substantially.
Frequently used in clinical settings to help formulate ideas and hypotheses for further research.

19. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Case Studies
Naturalistic Observation

20. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Naturalistic Observation
Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world.

21. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Naturalistic Observation
Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world.
The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory.

22. Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques Naturalistic Observation
Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world.
The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory.
The second goal of naturalistic observation is to describe the variables that are present and the relations among them.

23. Psychological Detective
Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic observation?

24. Psychological Detective
Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic observation?
The reactance or reactivity effect

25. Psychological Detective
Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic observation?
The reactance or reactivity effect
Refers to biasing of the participants’ responses because they know they are being observed.

26. Psychological Detective
Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic observation?
The reactance or reactivity effect
Refers to biasing of the participants’ responses because they know they are being observed.
The reactivity effect is also known as the Hawthorne effect because of the location of the original study.

27. Descriptive Methods Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

28. Descriptive Methods Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.

29. Descriptive Methods Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.
Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research.

30. Descriptive Methods Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.
Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research.
“Observer as participant” refers to a researcher who primarily observes a situation but who interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).

31. Descriptive Methods Participant Observation
The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.
Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research.
“Observer as participant” refers to a researcher who primarily observes a situation but who interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).
“Participant as observer” refers to the researcher who becomes a part of the culture by working and interacting extensively with the others (Glesne, 1999).

32. Psychological Detective
What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the participant observer technique?

33. Psychological Detective
What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the participant observer technique?
An extended period of time may be necessary before the participant observer is accepted as a member of the group that is under study.

34. Psychological Detective
What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the participant observer technique?
An extended period of time may be necessary before the participant observer is accepted as a member of the group that is under study.
Cannot make cause-and-effect statements.

35. Descriptive Methods
Clinical perspective

36. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:

37. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:
A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.

38. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:
A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.
Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive because they have been asked to participate in the situation.

39. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:
A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.
Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive because they have been asked to participate in the situation.
Although the participant observer can remain passive, clinicians must intervene in the situation.

40. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:
A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.
Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive because they have been asked to participate in the situation.
Although the participant observer can remain passive, clinicians must intervene in the situation.
The participant observer’s goal is understanding, whereas the clinician’s goal is helping.

41. Descriptive Methods Clinical perspective
Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:
A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.
Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive because they have been asked to participate in the situation.
Although the participant observer can remain passive, clinicians must intervene in the situation.
The participant observer’s goal is understanding, whereas the clinician’s goal is helping.
Participant observers validate their findings by replication while clinicians validate their findings by being able to predict the results of a given intervention.

42. Descriptive Methods
Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.

43. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Time sampling

44. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Time sampling
Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest.

45. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Time sampling
Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest.
Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a more systematic manner.

46. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Time sampling
Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest.
The use of time sampling may apply to the same or different participants.

47. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Situation sampling

48. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Situation sampling
Involves observing the same behavior in several different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages:

49. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Situation sampling
Involves observing the same behavior in several different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages:
By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed it.

50. Descriptive Methods Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
Situation sampling
Involves observing the same behavior in several different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages:
By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed it.
You are likely to observe different participants in the different situations and because different individuals are observed, your ability to generalize any behavioral consistencies across the various situations is increased.

51. Descriptive Methods
Deciding how to present the results of your research project.

52. Descriptive Methods
Deciding how to present the results of your research project.
Qualitative presentation of results:

53. Descriptive Methods
Deciding how to present the results of your research project.
Qualitative presentation of results:
Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description.

54. Descriptive Methods
Deciding how to present the results of your research project.
Qualitative presentation of results:
Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description.
Quantitative or numerical presentation of results:

55. Descriptive Methods
Deciding how to present the results of your research project.
Qualitative presentation of results:
Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description.
Quantitative or numerical presentation of results:
Need to know how behavior under investigation is going to be measured and how these measurements will be analyzed.

56. Descriptive Methods
Using More than One Observer

57. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
There are two main reasons for using more than one observer:

58. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
There are two main reasons for using more than one observer:
One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior.

59. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
There are two main reasons for using more than one observer:
One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior.
There may be some disagreement concerning exactly what was seen and how it should be rated or categorized.

60. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree.

61. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree.
The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver reliability.

62. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree.
The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver reliability.
Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree about the behavior(s) they observed.

63. Descriptive Methods Using More than One Observer
When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree.
The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver reliability.
Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree about the behavior(s) they observed.
High interobserver reliability indicates agreement.

64. Descriptive Methods
Here is the formula for calculating interobserver reliability:
# of times observers agree
______________________ X 100 = percent of agreement
# of opportunities to agree
85% agreement is generally considered to be an acceptable minimum level for interobserver reliability.

65. Qualitative Research

66. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.

67. Qualitative Research Qualitative research
“is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1994, p. 2)

68. Qualitative Research Qualitative research
“is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1994, p. 2)
The qualitative research style is much less formal and impersonal, and the reader of a qualitative research report can expect to find such additions as “definitions that evolved during a study” (Creswell, 1994, p. 7)

69. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.

70. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.
The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.

71. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.
The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.
Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic.

72. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.
The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.
Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic.
Qualitative research begins with guiding hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).

73. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.
The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.
Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic.
Qualitative research begins with guiding hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
Qualitative researchers typically analyze their data “simultaneously with data collection, data interpretation, and narrative reporting writing” (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).

74. Qualitative Research
The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.
The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.
Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic.
Qualitative research begins with guiding hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
Qualitative researchers typically analyze their data “simultaneously with data collection, data interpretation, and narrative reporting writing” (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).
Grounded theory is one of the most popular forms of contemporary qualitative research.

75. Qualitative Research
Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)

76. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.

77. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research questions.

78. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research questions.
Knowing the literature too well can hamper the creativity necessary to doing grounded theory research.

79. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research questions.
Knowing the literature too well can hamper the creativity necessary to doing grounded theory research.
The heart of the grounded theory approach occurs in its use of coding, which is analogous to data analysis in quantitative approaches.

80. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):

81. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding

82. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding:
The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.

83. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding:
The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.
Axial coding

84. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding:
The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.
Axial coding:
Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding.

85. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding:
The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.
Axial coding:
Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding.
Selective coding

86. Qualitative Research
Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):
Open coding:
The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.
Axial coding:
Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding.
Selective coding:
Entails identifying a core category and relating the subsidiary categories to this core.

87. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
From the process of selective coding, the grounded theory researcher moves toward developing a model of process and a transactional system, which essentially tells the story of the outcome of the research.

88. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
From the process of selective coding, the grounded theory researcher moves toward developing a model of process and a transactional system, which essentially tells the story of the outcome of the research.
Process refers to a linking of actions and interactions that result in some outcome .

89. Qualitative Research Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
From the process of selective coding, the grounded theory researcher moves toward developing a model of process and a transactional system, which essentially tells the story of the outcome of the research.
Process refers to a linking of actions and interactions that result in some outcome .
A transactional system is grounded theory’s analytical method that allows an examination of the interactions of different events. The transactional system is depicted in a conditional matrix such as that shown in figure 4.2

90. Correlational Studies
A correlational study involves the measurement and determination of the relation between two variables

91. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations

92. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation

93. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.
A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of 1.

94. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.
Negative correlation

95. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.
Negative correlation
Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient of –1.

96. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.
Negative correlation
Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
Zero correlation

97. Correlational Studies
The Nature of Correlations
Three basic patterns may emerge:
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.
Negative correlation
Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
Zero correlation
Indicates a lack of relation between the two variables.
The correlation coefficient for a “zero correlation” is zero (or close to zero).