1. Anger and Hostility
Class 20
(wrap –up)

2. Final Exam Date and Time
Quiz 2 and Final
Date: Tuesday, April 17
Time: Start of class
Covers: Everything since the midterm: Class 14 “Emotions and Social Judgment”
Format: Multiple choice
Final Exam Date and Time
Date: Tuesday, May 8
Time: 11:45-2:45
Covers: Everything since the midterm: Class 14: “Emotions and Social Judgment”
Only material we cover; topics we don’t cover won’t be on the final.
Format: Multiple choice

3. Terror Management Theory and Aggression
Human Dilemma
Humans only species aware of its own mortality
Humans, like all animals, instinctively flee danger
BUT
Mortality awareness is danger humans can’t flee
Culture provides defense against “existential terror” of mortality awareness.
* Promise of immortality (e.g., religion)
* Promise of meaningful life, transcends mortality

4. Threat to Cultural Worldview and Violence
If mortality is greatest fear, and
If cultural worldview is my only defense against mortality fears,
Then how do I feel towards those who challenge my cultural worldview?
War for religious, ideological beliefs
Martyrdom for religious, ideological beliefs
30 Years War

5. Terror Mgt and Violence: Experimental Evidence
Mortality Salience Manipulation
Briefly write describe the emotions that the thought of your own death arouses in you.
Jot down, as specifically as you can, what you think will happen to you as you physically die.
Control Condition Neutral: Write about eating a meal, watching TV
Control Condition Negative: Dental pain, social rejection

6. Results of Terror Mgt. Experiments
Hostile Attitudes
Increased Anti-Semitism
Harsher criminal sentences to repeat offenders
Harsher ratings of anti USA essay writer
Increased hostility to African Americans
Increased victim-blaming
Hostile Behavior
Distance from Turk vs. fellow German (in Germany)
Hot sauce administered to person with opposing views

7. “Thanatos”: Instinct for Destruction (Freud)
Destruction, mayhem is fun
Movies, novels, plays, video games
“That dog is gonna die” movies justify our blood lust.
Does anger do any good???

8. Culture and Aggression:
Yanomamo and Inuit

9. Culture and Aggression
Interdependent Cultures: Utku
Environ. requires cooperation and tolerance
Adios to crazy, savage researcher
Individualistic/Pride Based Culture: Yanomamo
Environment more benign, cooperation less necessary
Let’s rip-off the sappy researcher 

10. World of the Yanomami
24% males die in warfare

11. Violence in the USA Percent of adolescent boys involved in 1 + fights
What is the MOST violent industrialized nation?
USA
Violence in the USA
Percent of adolescent boys involved in 1 + fights
50%
Percent of adolescent girls involved in 1 + fights
25%
23%
Percent of adolescents who bring knife to school
3-5%
Percent of adolescents who bring gun to school 8%
Percent of men who encounter violent crime
All stats under-reported

12. Individualistic vs. Collectivist Cultures
Individualistic: Self interest promoted "I Self"
Collectivist: Group interest promoted "We self"
Individualist: Your gain can be my loss
Collectivist: Your gain is our gain is my gain
Violence in "we self" culture is bizarre; like self-mutilation.
BUT: Also authoritarian vs. libertarian societies
Bad to harm "in-group“, OK to harm "out-group"
Violence OK for violating group norms in collectivist
Reward for violating group norms in individualist
Also: Honor-focused vs. non Honor focused societies

13. RETALIATION OR FORGIVENESS: WHICH WORKS BETTER AGAINST AGGRESSION?

14. Prisoners’ Dilemma Cooperation Game
Player Player 2
Cooperate
Defect
Both gain
small reward
Player #1 gains big reward, #2 looses
Player #2 gains big reward, #1 looses
Both player
loose

15. Victim Retaliation and Perpetrator Aggression
Robt. Baron, 1974
Value of being aggressive:
High Value: “Macho men (mature, masculine) give strong shocks to partner.”
Low Value: No information about punishment and masculinity
Likelihood of retaliation from partner:
Low: Can never return shocks
Medium: Might sometimes be able to return shock
High: Will always be able to return shock

16. Aggression to Potential Victim Due to Value of Hostility and Victim’s Potential to Retaliate
Relates to?
Bullying, culture of honor

17. HOSTILE EMOTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS:
ANY GOOD ONES?
Contempt
Anger
Withdrawal
Whining
Not Good
Sometimes Good
Not Good
Not Good

18. Function of Anger in Interpersonal Relationships (Averill, 1981)
Subjects: 80 married, 80 singles
Subs complete daily emotion self-reports
Results: 66% report anger 1-2 a week (not just about each other)
44% annoyance once a day
Anger due to: frustration, violation of expectation,
loss of pride, damage to property, self
Anger source: Most often someone known, liked
Why get angry? Assert authority, rights
Change the offender
Strengthen relationship

19. Does Anger do Any Good? Averill, continued
Feelings about being angry: Most DON’T like it
Was expression of anger beneficial?
Percent of Expressers saying yes:
Percent of Targets saying yes:
62%
70%
Anger  relationship readjustment
Anger is act of commitment, is pledge to see problem through
But, anger can lead to cycle of violence

20. Fear and Anxiety
Class 20

21. Fear and Anxiety (Öhman Chapter)
Fear Thoughts
Physiology
Behavior
Timing
Something bad now, very soon
Weak limbs, heart races, dry mouth
Flee, desire to escape
Occurs post-stimulus
Anxiety Thoughts
Physiology
Behavior
Timing
Something bad in the future
Tension
Limited responses
Occurs pre-stimulus

22. Classes of Fear Inducing SituationsX
Interpersonal Threat (rejection, ostracism, shaming)
Mortality Fears (death, injury, illness, blood, surgery)
Fear of animals (domestics, small ones, bugs, reptiles)
Agoraphobic fear (open/closed spaces, traveling alone)
Which of these is greatest fear?

23. Evolutionary Basis for Fears
Social Fears
Mortality fears
Animals
Agoraphobia
Fear of Rejection Humans prey on humans
Humans only species aware of its own mortality
Predators Disease agents
Separation fears, lost in open space, lost in crowds

24. Phun With Phobias 1. Chaetophobia 2. Ephebophobia -- 3. Coulrophobia
4. Ergasiophobia
5. Gymnophobia
6. Parakavedkeatriaphobia
7. Neophobia
Fear of hair
Fear of youths
Fear of clowns
Fear of work
Fear of nudity
Fear of Friday 13
Fear of newness

25. “Preparedness” as Evidence of Evolutionary Basis for Phobias
Which is the most scary?
Tarantula
Viper
Rat
1988 Chevy 4-door
Which is the most deadly?
Tarantula
Viper
Rat
1988 Chevy 4-door X

26. Experimental Evidence of Preparedness (Ohman et al., 1975)
UCS—Electric shock—paired with either
a. Conditioning phobic: Phobic stim
b. Conditioning neutral: Neutral stim
OR, c. Sensitize: Shocks only, but no pairing
OR, d. Control: Photos only, no shocks
MEASURE: Skin conductance response (SCR)
QUESTION: How long for conditioned response (CS) to extinguish (SCR lower) due to expt. condition (a-d)?
UCS = Unconditioned Stimulus

27. Extinction Rate of Conditioned Fear, When UCS (Pain) Paired with Phobic or Neutral Stimuli
Phobic Stims
Neutral Stims
SCR
SCR
“Condition” = Photo + Shock “Sensitize” = Shocks only “CS Alone” = Photos w/o shocks

28. Why Do Phobias Exist? A Harber Speculation Moment
How we now live
Isolated
Protected by professionals
Few threats
Need for warning—low
How we used to live
Collectively
Protected by each other
Many threats
Need for warning—high
The Baboon “neurotic” who never overcame researcher phobia.

29. Hearing and Not Hearing Danger Signals: December 7, 1941

30. Signal Detection: Where to err?
Danger Present
Danger Not Present
Sound Alarm
Hit
False
Positive
Don’t Alarm
Negative X

31. Why Humans “Favor” False Alarms
Humans faced signal detection dilemma for millennia
Evolved in a highly dangerous world
Evolutionary lessons “learned” by psyche are that:
1. Defenses must activate quickly
2. Must activate at hint of threat, not at certainty
3. Threat registered with minimal cues
Le Doux's "Fear Loop": Direct link: auditory nuclei to amygdala.
Bypasses thalamo-cortical path.
Threat doesn’t require high-level analyses

32. Problem of Attention and Threat
1. Where to point the "radar dish", to best detect threat?
2. Timing: How do look at the right place AT THE RIGHT TIME to find threats?
3. How do we do anything else, if we're focusing only on threat?

33. Automatic vs. Controlled Info. Processing
Gross characteristics
Fine characteristics
Unconscious, voluntary
Conscious, directed
Can’t suppress/distract
Can suppress/distract
Parallel (several modes
at once).
Sequential (only one mode at a time).
Does not require effort
Effortful
Can’t be observed by self
Can be observed by self
(introspection).
Automatic
Controlled

34. Gavin de Becker "Gift of Fear" Examples
Unexpected Apprehension: Woman at drive-up ATM: Flash of fear due to suddenness, speed, closeness of approaching person.
Dark Humor: Package without return address "I'm going back to my office before the bomb goes off." Bomb went off--Unibomber. Joke allows for socially safe way to express fear.

35. Automatic Processing and Threat Detection
Automatic, non-conscious mental activity gives us early warning system for detecting threat.
Implication: You can know and not know something at the same time--know it unconsciously, but not consciously
Arne Ohman studies: Show how this occurs
Basic technique: Backward masking
Arne Ohman

36. Backward Masking
1. Present picture of threatening stimulus very quickly (30 milliseconds) 
2. Immediately after threat pix is shown, show a non-threatening picture. The second picture is a mask, blocks first picture from consciousness. 
3. Reaction to first picture (e.g., snake) indicates unconscious processing
Mask

37. Automatic Processing of Fearful Stimuli (Ohman & Soares, 1994)
1. Pre-select: Snake phobic, not spider phobic
Spider phobic, not snake phobic
Have no fear of spiders or snakes
2. Targets: photos of snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms
3. Masks: Cut-up/reassembled target photos
4. Show target photo for 30 milliseconds.
5. Show mask for 100 milliseconds
6. Later, show target without mask
7. Outcome measure: GSR—a measure of anxiety.
8. All subjects exposed to photos of snakes, spiders,
flowers, mushrooms in masked and, later, un-masked condition.

38. Automatic Processing of Fearful Stimuli: Results of Masked Stimuli Only
Masked Stims

39. Anxiety Primes Attention to Anxious Stimuli
Subjects: Trait anxious vs. normal controls
Auditory shadowing task
* Attended ear – listens to story
* Dis-attended ear -- threat words (kill, hate, disease)
-- Neutral words (juice, table, leaf)
Visual probes: Press “J” for names, “F” for foods
Question: Is Reaction Time (RT) for visual probes affected by threat/neutral words?

40. Idealized Results of Shadowing Study
Implication: Trait anxiety  heightened sensitivity to threat.

41. Stigma: Where fear, anger, and humor intersect
Stigma—from “Stigmata”, a mark
Who are the stigmatized?
Those who violate social norms: Old, infirm, disfigured, disabled, social outcast, criminal, “the other”
Reactions to the stigmatized?
Fear, anger, fascination, disgust, interest, anxiety, derision

42. Why the Strong Reactions to the Stigmatized?
Learned : e.g., parents to young
Inborn : Part of evolutionary make-up
a. Strong attack weak in hierarchical species
b. Immediate fear and loathing to dead animals

43. Reactions of Chimps to the Dead and Disabled
Reactions to anesthetized chimps (Hebb & Thompson, 1954)
Reactions to paralyzed chimps (Goodall, 1971)
Emotional reactions?
Fear, anger, disgust, distain

44. Are responses to stigma always negative?
Compassion: Some chimps adopted the polio victims
Fascination: Curious about people, who violate norms.
a. “Freak shows”
b. Tourists to East Village
Admiration:
a. Glamour of the rebel, bad boy/girl
b. Respect for courage—Helen Keller
Ambivalence: Emotions that go strongly in two directions at once—uncomfortable and powerful.

45. Stigmatized: Hyper-visible and invisible
Hyper-visible: Staring at the handicapped (Langer, et al. 1976)
Invisibility and being stigmatized?
Invisibility: People try to not see the stigmatized
I am invisible, understand, simply because people refuse to see me. … it is as though I have been surrounded by mirrors of hard, distorting glass. [People see] only my surroundings, themselves, or figments of their imagination—indeed, everything and anything except me.
Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man

47. Panic Attacks: Characteristics
* Place people is full-blown terror mode
* Powerful sense of foreboding, fear, dread
* Physiologically arousing: heart, breathing, etc.
* Mental readiness for danger: Planning escape

48. Panic Attacks: Causes
1. Biologically-oriented: spontaneous, arise from bio-chemical misfiring
2. Psychologists: precipitating thoughts and events, especially separation-related: family strife, job-loss
3. Attack requires:
a. symptom sensitivity +
b. catastrophic cognitions +
c. preceding/concurrent negative events
4. Patients complain about meaning of panic
5. Panics are a vicious cycle: arousal --> cognitions --> arousal
How to manage panic attacks
1. Attacks last from minutes
2. Knowing this allows people to wait it out