1. Chapter 7 The Empires of Persia
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2. The Persian Empires Centered around contemporary (modern-day) Iran
Four major dynasties
Achaemenids (558–330 B.C.E.)
Seleucids (323–83 B.C.E.)
Parthians (247 B.C.E. –224 C.E.)
Sassanids (224–651 C.E.)
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3. The Achaemenid Empire (558–330 B.C.E.)
Migration of Indo-Europeans (including Persians) from central Asia, before 1000 B.C.E.—part of larger Indo-European migrations
Capitalized on weakening Assyrian and Babylonian empires establish new empires in Mesopotamia, Egypt & India
Cyrus (r. 558–530 B.C.E.) founded dynasty
“Cyrus the Great”
Proved himself to be a strong leader & military strategist who helped expand the Achaemenid Empire from India to Egypt
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4. The Achaemenid Empire (558–330 B.C.E.)
Empire’s peak under Darius (r. 521–486 B.C.E.)
Ruled from Indus to the Aegean; Armenia to the Nile
Empire encompassed many geographical areas, population of 35 million
Within empire: 70 ethnic groups who lived in different places & spoke many languages  need to establish lines of communication with all groups
Magnificent capital at Persepolis
Administrative center & monument of Achaemenid Empire
Reception halls, royal residences, treasury with many advisors, translators, accountants, bureaucratic offices
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6. Darius’ Achievements: Achaemenid Empire
Under Darius: lands divided into provinces, run by satraps
Responsible for spreading messages of the king
Twenty-three administrative divisions
Satraps were mainly Persian, but staff principally local
Vast distance of empire  checks!
System of spies (“inspectors”), surprise audits (satraps checked on by inspectors)
Purpose: Minimized possibilities of local rebellion
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7. Achaemenid Administration: Darius’ other achievements
Instituted regular tax payments, standardized currency (coins) for taxation purposes
Modified laws when necessary to meet the needs of his empire
The Royal Road, 1,500 miles
Took ~90 days to travel, had caravanserai— combination inns & markets for people traveling by camel caravan
Postal service: ability to carry messages across Royal Road in 2 weeks
Also improved established highways/routes between Mesopotamia & Egypt, built new roads linking Persia to other parts of the empire (~8,000 miles)
 improved trade  larger economy
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9. Decline of the Achaemenid Empire
Vast empire and extensive public works
Qanat system of underground canals
Spread of iron metallurgy
Policy of religious toleration under Cyrus, Darius (especially Darius)
Darius: allowed Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild temple in Jerusalem
More difficult relations under Xerxes (r. 486–465 B.C.E.)
Rebellions in Mesopotamia, Egypt harshly repressed
 Increasing public discontent
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11. The Persian Wars (500–479 B.C.E.)
Persians tried to absorb Greece into empire but defeated at Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.E.), retreated
Under Xerxes: further conflict with Greeks while trying to expand again
Battle of Thermopylae: defeat of Spartans & allies
Rebellious Ionian Greeks (Anatolia): assertion of independence & execution/expulsion of governors of Persian Empire
Joined by peninsular Greeks—Athenians & allies (including Ionian Greeks) formed the Delian League
Intermittent problems w/Greeks for 150 years, Athens & Sparta eventually fight in Peloponnesian War
Wars weakened empire, Xerxes not tolerant of others like his father Darius
Achaemenid empire ultimately invaded and conquered, 334–330 B.C.E., by Alexander the Great/Alexander of Macedon
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13. Meanwhile, in Macedonia…
While Greeks & Persians fighting: Macedonia becomes stronger under Philip II
Conquered all of the Greek city-states besides Sparta
Was assassinated  son Alexander takes over
Why was Alexander Great? (We will talk more about him with Greece!!)
Married Persian women  increased relations with Persia
Founded center of Hellenistic/Greek culture at Alexandria, Egypt
Conquests throughout Eurasia  spread of Hellenistic culture (language, architecture, mythology & philosophy—more about this later!)
Alexander dies, huge empire divided by Seleucids (Asia) and Ptolemies (Egypt)
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14. The Seleucid Empire
After Alexander the Great’s death (323 B.C.E.), empire divided by generals
Best part went to Seleucus (r. 305–281 B.C.E.)
Maintained Achaemenid systems of administration & taxation, postal service, imperial roads
Not very strong
Faced rebellion in India, invasion of Parthians
Satraps revolted against rulers
3rd century B.C.E.: Parthians begin to take over; Seleucid Empire officially taken over by Romans in 83 B.C.E.
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15. The Achaemenid and Seleucid Empires, 558–330 B.C.E. and 323–83 B.C.E.

16. The Parthian Empire
Seminomadic Parthians progressively took over Iran from Seleucids during third century B.C.E.
Powerful empire extended to Mesopotamia
Federated governmental structure—met in councils & jointly determined policy
Developed effective way to resist nomadic invaders w/ especially strong cavalry
Fed horses alfalfa in winter  animals would grow bigger  could support warriors with metal armor
Use of satraps to rule empire (unsuccessful rebellions vs. government); Achaemenid form of taxation
Weakened by ongoing wars with Romans
Fell to internal rebellion to Sassanids
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17. The Sassanid Empire (224–651 C.E.)
Claimed descent from Achaemenids, re-created Achaeminid achievements
capital city, system of administration, active trade w/east & west)
Introduced rice, sugarcane, cotton into Iran
Continual conflicts with Rome, Byzantium in the west, Kush in the east
Creation of buffer states to protect themselves vs. Romans
Promotion of Zoroastrianism, persecution of Christians
Belief of Christians being sympathetic to Romans
Overwhelmed by Arab conquest (expansion of Islam) in 651 C.E.
Persian administration and culture absorbed into new Islamic society
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18. The Parthian and Sassanid Empires, 247 C.E.–651 C.E.
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19. Social Development in Classical Persia
Early steppe traditions
Consisted largely of warriors, priests, peasants
Family and clan relationships very important
Male warriors – head of clans (patriarchy w/women having some rights)
Creation of bureaucrat class with empire
Tax collectors, record keepers, translators
To be a bureaucrat = comfortable & important place in society
Bulk of society was free
Artisans, craftsmen, merchants, civil servants
Priests, priestesses, temple servants
Rural peasants
Similar to Mesopotamia: ability to participate in religious local temples, share in income temples generated
Women were able to buy & own property, allowed to keep wages from working in shops, participated in economic activities
Wearing of veils to advertise social status; could get divorces!
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20. Slaves
Number of slaves found in Persia much greater than in other areas
Prisoners of war, conquered populations, debtors
Found in cities AND countryside (not just a city thing)
Children, spouses also sold into slavery
Principally domestic servitude
Some agricultural labor, public works
Many owned by temple communities
Gimillu of Eanna in Uruk: shows some slaves had close, personal relationships w/powerful ppl who could protect them
records of misdeeds (bribery, embezzlement of temple funds) but still held high position in temple community & never received harsh punishment
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21. Economic Foundations Several areas exceptionally fertile
Vast quantities of produce flowed into imperial court
Use of standardized coins (easier to use), banks, and investment in commercial ventures
Long-distance trade grew rapidly on Persian roads (India to Egypt, both land & sea trade)
Trade  mixing & mingling of religious faiths, art styles, philosophy
Various regions all contributed particular products to economy
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22. Zarathustra and His Faith
Earliest Persian religions: recognition of many of the same Aryan gods, sacrifices
Emergence of Zoroastrianism
Zarathustra, prophet of Ahura Mazda (“wise lord”), perhaps late seventh and early sixth centuries B.C.E.
Elusive doctrine—early teachings transmitted orally
Priests of Zarathustra known as magi
Sassanid period, Gathas composed (hymns in honor of deities)
Cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu
Judgment of human souls according to thoughts, words, deeds  reward or punishment
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23. Officially Sponsored Zoroastrianism
Under Alexander, massacre of magi, burning of Zoroastrian temples
Hymns & holy verses disappeared because most doctrines at this time were still transmitted orally.
Weak Parthian support
Major revival under Sassanids
Persecution of non-Zoroastrians, especially if religion followed threatened strength of Zoroastrianism
Discrimination under Islamic conquerors; some fled to India, most stayed in Iran and converted to Islam
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24. The Ahura Mazda, “wise lord” is often portrayed in art as having wings
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25. Other Faiths
Numerous communities of Jews in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Persia (after Kingdom of David & Solomon fell in 930 B.C.E.)
Cyrus releases Jews from capitivity in Bablyon when empire was conquered: 536 BCE
Three religions of salvation also attracted converts in Persian empire: Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism
Influence of Zoroastrianism
Omnipotent deity responsible for all creation
Conflict with evil
Moral judgment, rewards in paradise
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