1. Stocks and Their Valuation
Chapter 9
Stocks and Their Valuation
Features of Common Stock Determining Common Stock Values Preferred Stock

2. Facts about Common Stock
Represents ownership
Ownership implies control
Stockholders elect directors
Directors elect management
Management’s goal: Maximize the stock value
Preemptive right
Election of directors happens in Kuwait every three years
During the annual meeting
Each share of stock is worth one vote

3. Intrinsic Value & Stock Price
Investors, corporate insiders & analysts use a variety of approaches to estimate a stock’s intrinsic value (P0)
In equilibrium: assume stock’s price (=) its intrinsic value
Outsiders estimate intrinsic value to help determine which stocks are attractive to buy and/or sell.
Mangers should care to better understand what affects their IV in terms of their actions
Stocks with a price below its intrinsic value (undervalued)
Stocks with a price above its intrinsic value (overvalued)
What is the difference between intrinsic value and stock price?
Why do we care about IV? To trade stocks and achieve a higher return that Rd
Also knowing whether their firm is undervalued or overvalued helps them in making many decisions

4. Determinants of Intrinsic Value and Stock Prices
“True” Investor Cash Flows
“True” Risk
“Perceived” Investor Cash Flows
“Perceived” Risk
Managerial Actions, the Economic Environment, Taxes, and the Political Climate
Stock’s Intrinsic Value
Stock’s Market Price
Market Equilibrium: Intrinsic Value = Stock Price
What happens in an efficient market?

5. What is the value of any asset?

6. Different Approaches for Estimating the Intrinsic Value of a Common Stock
Discounted dividend model
Corporate valuation model
P/E multiple approach
EVA approach
What is DDM? CVM?

7. Discounted Dividend Model
Value of a stock is the present value of the future dividends expected to be generated by the stock.
What are the cash flows a stock holder receives? Dividends
What is D? r?
Even if you do not intend to hold the stock indefinitely, the same valuation applies. Because even if I decide to sell it one year later, what will be it’s value?
Most investors try to find stocks with an expected return greater than the required one

8. Constant Growth Stock
A stock whose dividends are expected to grow forever at a constant rate, g.
D1 = D0(1 + g)1
D2 = D0(1 + g)2
Dt = D0(1 + g)t
Also called Gordon model
If g is constant, the discounted dividend formula converges to:
The formula previously shown is a generalized formula for the valuation of stocks since it does not make any assumptions for D
It is hard to forecast D for infinity therefore we make assumptions for D
For some firms it is reasonable to assume D will grow at a fixed rate (e.g. mature firms)

9. Future Dividends and Their Present Values$
0.25
Years (t)
At equilibrium, required rate = expected rate
R = D/P + g => expected return = expected dividend yield + expected growth rate or capital gains yield

10. Dividends vs. Growth What affects expected P0? Dividends r g
You have a $1,000,000 business with no debt. Equity = $1,000,000. ROE = 10%.
What is NI?
What will happen if you take out all earnings as dividends?
What will happen if you only take out 40% of earnings?
For dividends to grow, earnings need to be retained and reinvested
Therefore to achieve higher g, a firm needs to not pay a lot of dividends now
Next year’s earnings = prior earnings + ROE*retained earnings
Next year’s dividends = 0.4*new earnings
Growth rate = (1-payout rate)*ROE
Which is better? Pay high D or get a higher g? Those who will take 327 will take a deeper look into this

11. What happens if g > rs?
If g > rs, the constant growth formula leads to a negative stock price,
which does not make sense!!
The constant growth model can only be used if:
rs > g.
g is expected to be constant forever.
G being constant is good for mature stable companies
For such mature stable companies we tend to think of their growth to match the overall economy

12. Use the SML to Calculate the Required Rate of Return (rs)
If rRF = 7%, rM = 12%, & b = 1.2, what is the required rate of return on the firm’s stock?
rs = rRF + (rM – rRF)b
= 7% + (12% – 7%)1.2
= 13%

13. Find the Expected Dividend Stream for the Next 3 Years and Their PVs
D0 = $2 and g is a constant 6%.
1.8761
1.7599
1.6509
rs = 13%
g = 6% 1
2.247 2
2.382 3
2.12

14. What is the stock’s intrinsic value?
Using the constant growth model:

15. What is the stock’s expected value, one year from now?
D1 will have been paid out already. So, expected P1 is the present value (as of Year 1) of D2, D3, D4, etc.
Could also find expected P1 as:

16. Find Expected Dividend Yield, Capital Gains Yield & Total Return During First Year
Dividend yield = D1/P0
= $2.12/$30.29 = 7.0%
Capital gains yield = (P1 – P0)/P0
= ($32.10 – $30.29)/$30.29 = 6.0%
Total return (rs) = Dividend yield + Capital gains yield
= 7.0% + 6.0% = 13.0%

17. Exmple

18. Exmple

19. What would the expected price today be if g = 0?
The dividend stream would be a perpetuity.
2.00 1 2 3
rs = 13%

20. Supernormal Growth
What if g = 30% for 3 years before achieving long-run growth of 6%?
Can no longer use just the constant growth model to find stock value.
However, the growth does become constant after 3Yrs
For many firms growth is not constant
Instead many firms go through a life cycle in which they observe very high g
For example computer software like Microsoft in the 80s and 90s, Google in the 2000s

22. Valuing Common Stock with Nonconstant Growth
D0 = $2.00. 1 2 3 4
rs = 13%
g = 30%
g = 30%
g = 30%
g = 6%
4.658
2.301
2.647
3.045
46.114 =
The PV of dividends during the super growth period and the PV of price for constant growth period. P3 is called horizon value or terminal value
PV of dividends during Gs period & PV of price for constant growth period. P3 is called horizon (terminal) value

23. Find Expected Dividend and Capital Gains Yields During the First and Fourth Years
Dividend yield (first year)
= $2.60/$54.11 = 4.81%
Capital gains yield (first year)
= 13.00% – 4.81% = 8.19%
During nonconstant growth, dividend yield & capital gains yield are not constant & capital gains yield ≠ g
After t = 3, the stock has constant growth & dividend yield = 7%, while capital gains yield = 6%

24. Exmple

25. Exmple

26. Nonconstant Growth: What if g = 0% for 3 years before long-run growth of 6%?
D0 = $2.00.
rs = 13%
g = 0%
g = 6%
1.77
1.57
1.39
20.99
25.72 = 1 2 3 4
2.12

27. Find Expected Dividend and Capital Gains Yields During the First and Fourth Years
Dividend yield (first year)
= $2.00/$25.72 = 7.78%
Capital gains yield (first year)
= 13.00% – 7.78% = 5.22%
After t = 3, the stock has constant growth and dividend yield = 7%, while capital gains yield = 6%.

28. If the stock was expected to have negative growth (g = -6%), would anyone buy the stock, and what is its value?
Yes.
Even though the dividends are declining, the stock is still producing cash flows and therefore has positive value.

29. Find Expected Annual Dividend & Capital Gains Yields
Capital gains yield = g = -6.00%
Dividend yield = 13.00% – (-6.00%) = 19.00%
Since the stock is experiencing constant growth, dividend yield & capital gains yield are constant
Dividend yield is sufficiently large (19%) to offset negative capital gains
In many valuation models in true life, 5 years are used instead of three.
Many companies go through various phases of high and slow growth
What about firms that pay no dividends?

30. DDM is good for mature companies with stable dividends growth However this is not the case for all firms

31. Corporate Valuation Model
Also called the free cash flow method. Suggests the value of the entire firm equals the present value of the firm’s free cash flows
Remember, free cash flow is the firm’s after-tax operating income less the net capital investment
FCF = EBIT(1 – T) – Net capital investment
Net capital investment = capital expenditures + Changes in net working capital – depreciation & amortization

32. Applying the Corporate Valuation Model
Find the market value (MV) of the firm, by finding the PV of the firm’s future FCFs
Subtract MV of firm’s debt & preferred stock to get MV of common stock
Divide MV of common stock by the number of shares outstanding to get intrinsic stock price (value).

33. Issues Regarding the Corporate Valuation Model
Often preferred to the discounted dividend model,
Especially When
Considering number of firms that don’t pay dividends
Dividends are hard to forecast
Similar to discounted dividend model, assumes at some point free cash flow will grow at a constant rate
Horizon value (HVN) represents value of firm at the point that growth becomes constant.

34. Use the Corporate Valuation Model to Find the Firm’s Intrinsic Value
Given: Long-Run gFCF = 6% & WACC = 10% 1 2 3 4
r = 10%
g = 6% -5 10 20
21.20
-4.545
8.264
15.026

35. What is the firm’s intrinsic value per share?
The firm has $40 million total in debt & preferred stock and has 10 million shares of common stock.

36. Example

37. Firm Multiples Method
Analysts often use the following multiples to value stocks
P/E
P/CF
P/Sales
EXAMPLE:
Based on comparable firms, estimate the appropriate P/E Multiply this by expected earnings to back out an estimate of the stock price

38. EVA Approach
EVA = Equity capital(ROE – Cost of equity) MVEquity = BVEquity + PV of all future EVAs Value per share = MVEquity/# of shares

39. Preferred Stock
Hybrid security: Has some characteristics from a common stock & some of a bond
Like bonds, preferred stockholders receive a fixed dividend that must be paid before dividends are paid to common stockholders.
However, companies can omit preferred dividend payments without fear of pushing the firm into bankruptcy.

40. If preferred stock with an annual dividend of $5 sells for $50, what is the preferred stock’s expected return?

41. Exmple