1. Phonology: More on allophones and phonemes
LING 400
Winter 2010

2. Overview Review of phonology Data sets Mohawk stops
Russian velar stops
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3. Phonemic vs. phonetic representations
directly observable
contains measurable properties
Phonemic representation
inferred, not observed
abstract, streamlined representation of sound
Levels related by phonological rules

4. Inferring the phonemic representation
Minimal pairs/sets
sounds in contrast
Complementary distribution
sounds not in contrast

5. Minimal pair
Two words differing in meaning and only one phonetic property
A minimal pair for voicing in English
[|kɹæbi] crabby vs. [|kɹæpi] crappy
therefore, /p b/ in English
Phonetic difference between pair not due to context
Minimal pairs contain phonemes

6. Near-minimal pairs/sets
Sometimes not many minimal pairs
[θ], [ð]: [θɑɪ] thigh, [ðɑɪ] thy; ether, either
Sometimes minimal pairs lacking
[ʃ], [ʒ]
none word initially
word medially: [ə|luʃən] Aleutian, [ɪ|luʒən]~[ə|luʒən] illusion
Rule for inferring phonemes from near-minimal pairs
sounds must be in “same environment” or close to it
[phɑɪ], [spɑɪ] not a minimal pair for aspiration in English ([p], [ph] not in same environment)

7. Complementary distribution of sounds
Predictable aspects of pronunciation can be due to
Influence of neighboring sound
Position within word

8. Mohawk Iroquoian family; spoken in Quebec, Ontario, and New York
map from

9. Mohawk stops Observation: [p t k b d g] are all sounds of Mohawk
Suspicion: there are no minimal or near-minimal pairs for voicing
Question: Is stop voicing phonemic or predictable?

10. Mohawk phonetic data of interest: [p t k b d g] [oli:deʔ] ‘pigeon’
[V:] = long vowel, [C̥] = voiceless consonant
[oli:deʔ]
‘pigeon’
[ojɑ:gɑlɑ]
‘shirt’
[zɑhset]
‘hide it!’ (sg.)
[ohjotsɑh]
‘chin’
[gɑ:lis]
‘stocking’
[lɑbɑhbet]
‘catfish’
[odɑhsɑ]
‘tail’
[sdu:hɑ]
‘a little bit’
[wisk]
‘five’
[ʤiks]
‘fly’
[degeni]
‘two’
[desdɑʔn̥]
‘stand up!’ (sg.)
[ɑplɑm]
‘Abram, Abraham’
[de:zekw̥]
‘pick it up!’ (sg.)

11. Finding patterns in a mass of data
Often useful to
rearrange the data
[p t k] vs. [b d g]
simplify the data
list immediately preceding, following sound/position
Then look for
natural classes of sounds, those sharing some property not shared by other sounds, to right or left
or unique position

12. Mohawk stop distribution
ɑ ___l
ɑ ___ ɑ
h___e
[t]
[d]
e___#
i:___e
o___s
o___ ɑ
s___u:
#___e
#___e:
s___ɑ
[k]
[g]
s___#
#___ ɑ:
i___s
e___e
e___w̥
ɑ:___ ɑ
# = word edge
Any natural classes?
[ɑ], [e], [o], [i], [s]
[l], #, [s], [w̥]
[ɑ], [i:], [o], [e], [h], [ɑ:], #
[ɑ], [e], [u:], [e:], [ɑ:]
start by summarizing the immediately preceding and following context
in some cases, however, it may be necessary to look farther afield (2 or more consonants or vowels away) for possible conditioning
then scan the columns of contextual information for similarities

13. Summarized contexts
[p t k]
[b d g]
___ C
___ V
___ #
[p t k] and [b d g] are in complementary distribution in Mohawk.
Notice: what precedes doesn’t matter

14. Writing a phonological rule
Which rule?
Mohawk has /p t k/ and Voicing rule (stops are voiced before vowels). or?
Mohawk has /b d g/ and Devoicing rule (stops are voiceless word finally or before a consonant).

15. Choose Voicing Voicing simpler than Devoicing
Voicing: “...before vowels.”
Devoicing: “...word finally or before a consonant.”
The predicted sounds occur in the more restrictive context.
A second reason why a linguist would prefer the Mohawk grammar with Voicing: If Voicing, then Mohawk consonant inventory contains /p t k/. If Devoicing, then /b d g/. But there are no languages with /b d g/ which lack /p t k/. I.e. voiced stops  voiceless stops (an implicational universal).) At this point you are not expected to know this.

16. Final analysis In Mohawk,
Stops are voiced before vowels, and voiceless elsewhere. (sentence formulation of rule)
/p t k/  [b d g] / ___ V
(  [p t k] / …)
(‘arrow’ formulation of rule)
… = elsewhere

17. Natural classes

18. Summary Determining phonemes Keys to being able to do so
Minimal pairs and near-minimal pairs
Complementary distribution of sounds
Keys to being able to do so
Understanding value of phonetic symbols
Recognizing natural classes

19. Question
Turn in a broad phonetic (or phonemic) transcription of your first and last names
Transcribe primary stress (if appropriate)
Transcribe [ə] and [ɾ], if either of your names contains these sounds