1. Relationships

2. Factors affecting Relationship formation
Physical attractiveness
Filter theory
Self-disclosure

3. Specification
Factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships: self-disclosure
What do we mean by self-disclosure?

4. Depth of Self-disclosure
In the clip a number of stages of self-disclosure were mentioned from least-personal to most-personal. These were:
Clichés
Facts and non-threatening biographical information
Opinions and attitudes
Personal feelings – hopes and fears, secrets.
Peak

5. Self-disclosure
Self disclosure involves revealing personal information about yourself.
Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops.
These revelations strengthen the relationship if used appropriately.

6. Risks of Self-Disclosure
What are the risks and benefits of self- disclosure?

7. Social Penetration Theory Altman and Taylor (1973)
Self disclosure is a gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone.
In romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners. This leads to a deep understanding of each others lives.
There are two elements to this – breadth and depth.
Altman and Taylor use the onion metaphor (layers) to explain this.
Low risk information is revealed early on in a relationship and high risk information comes out as the relationship progresses.

8. Breadth and Depth
As both breadth and depth increase, romantic partners become more committed to each other.
We disclose a lot about ourselves at the start of a relationship but most of this is low-risk superficial information.
Breadth of information is also narrow to start with because many topics are ‘off limits’.

9. Breadth and Depth
In the early stages of a relationship if we were to reveal too much too soon, we are putting ourselves at increased risk (as trust will be relatively low at this point) and we may get the response of ‘too much information’, putting the relationship in jeopardy before it has had a chance to develop.
As the relationship develops, self-disclosure becomes deeper and encompasses a wider range of topics, especially concerning those things that matter most to us.

12. Reciprocity of self-disclosure
Reis & Shaver (1988) assert that breadth and depth are not sufficient for a relationship to develop. There must be a reciprocal element to disclosure.
Once you have disclosed something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding, with understanding, empathy, and their own intimate thoughts and feelings.
This lead to a balance of self-disclosure between both partners, deepening the relationship.

13. Too much Self-disclosure = disaster
Public disclosure and poorly timed self-disclosure can lead to problems in relationships…

14. Factors involved in self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is not always seen as rewarding or leading to a positive perception of those who are doing the disclosing.
Factors that need to be considered are:
Content of the disclosure
Appropriateness of the disclosure
Attributions for the disclosure
Gender differences
CAAG

15. Content of the disclosure
Generally intimate disclosures are seen favourably.
However, disclosure of highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms, especially if the relationship is in its early stages.
This could decrease attraction, as the recipient of the information may feel threatened and unsure of how to respond.
Attraction is stronger when self-disclosure is of moderate intimacy rather than low or high intimacy.

16. Appropriateness
Sometimes disclosing personal information is inappropriate.
Is what is being said going against social norms?
Those who contravene social norms will be seen as maladjusted and lacking in social skills.
More attractive people will be sensitive to norms.

17. Attributions for the disclosure
The reasons we believe a person is self-disclosing are important to us.
Less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone, or if the situation is not appropriate.
More attraction occurs if we believe an individual sees us as someone they especially want to disclose intimate information to.

18. Gender differences
Women are generally seen as better communicators of and more interested in intimate information, therefore intimate self-disclosure by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females.
Alternatively self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female, as it indicates he especially wants to disclose personal information to her.
Males may not be used to this and so feel threatened by females self-disclosing intimate details.

19. First Dates Evaluate this ‘first date’…

20. Evaluation Support from research studies = strength
Sprecher & Hendrick (2004) studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure (both their own and their partner’s).
Those who believed their partners’ (regardless of if they were male or female) self-disclosed more were more satisfied with their relationship.

21. Evaluation
Support from research studies = strength Laurenceau et al. (2005) used a method involving writing daily diary entries.
They found that self-disclosure and the perception of self-disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term married couples.
The reverse was also true – less intimate couples self-disclosed less often.
Such research findings increase our confidence in the credibility of the theory that self-disclosure leads to more satisfying relationships.

22. Evaluation Real-life applications = strength
Romantic partners probably use self-disclosure deliberately and skilfully from time to time to increase intimacy and strengthen their bond.
Hass & Stafford (1998) found that 57% of gay men and women in their study said that open and honest self- disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened their committed relationships.

23. Evaluation Real-life applications = strength
If less-skilled partners e.g. those limiting communication to ‘small-talk’ could learn to use self-disclosure then this could bring several benefits to the relationship in terms of deepening satisfaction and commitment.
The 36 questions were designed to help couples with this

24. Evaluation Cultural differences = limitation
The prediction that increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosures will lead to a more satisfying and intimate romantic relationship is not true for all cultures.
Tang et al (2013) reviewed the research literature regarding sexual self-disclosure (feelings about specific sexual practices).

25. Evaluation
Tang et al found that men and women in USA (an individualistic culture) self-disclosed significantly more sexual thoughts and feelings than men and women in China (a collectivist culture).
To apply findings from explanations of romantic relationship from one culture to another could be considered an example of ethnocentric bias.

26. Evaluation Self-disclosure and satisfaction = limitation
Social penetration theory claims that romantic relationships become more intimate as self-disclosures deepen and broaden.
Using the onion analogy relationship breakdown should be accompanied by a reduction in self-disclosures, as partners wrap themselves up once again in layers of concealment.

27. Evaluation
However, theories of relationship breakdown (such as Duck’s theory) often recognise how couples discuss and negotiate the state of their deteriorating relationship in an attempt to save it or return to an earlier level of satisfaction.
These discussions often involve deep self-disclosures of very intimate thoughts and feelings, and yet clearly satisfaction is low and these disclosures may even contribute to relationship breakdown.

28. Evaluation Self-disclosure and satisfaction = limitation
It appears that the relationship between self-disclosure and satisfaction is not stable in all relationships nor in all stages of a relationship.
If a theory cannot be applied in all situations then it is less generalisable. Clearly this is a limitation.

29. Evaluation Correlation versus causation = limitation
Much self-disclosure research is correlational (e.g. Sprecher & Hendrick).
It is assumed that greater self-disclosure leads to more satisfaction however a correlation does not tell us if this is a valid conclusion to draw.

30. Tasks Produce your own revision card or mind- map on self-disclosure.
Complete Apply it Methods: Tell me what you feel on p.121 PHG .
Complete Check it questions 1 & 3 on p PHG