1. PSYC 112 PSYCHOLOGY FOR EVERYDAY LIVING
SESSION EIGHT – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PART II
Lecturer: Dr. Paul Narh Doku, Dept of Psychology, UG
Contact Information:

2. Session Overview
This session is the concluding part of developmental psychology. It follows directly from the previous session and introduces you to some relevant areas in human development such as moral development, psychosocial development, parenting styles as well as some physical changes that takes place in us as we age.

3. The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
Topic One – Moral Development
Topic Two – Psychosocial Development
Topic Three – Parenting Styles
Topic Four – Physical Changes and Aging

4. Reading List
Refer to students to relevant text/chapter or reading materials you will make available on Sakai

5. Topic 1 – Moral Development

6. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
Built on an earlier theory of moral reasoning proposed by Piaget, using a series of stories that involved moral dilemmas to assess a person’s level of moral reasoning
Discerned three levels of moral reasoning based on responses to the stories and the reasoning behind the responses given

7. Levels of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional—moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments
Conventional—laws and rules are upheld simply because they are laws and rules
Postconventional—reasoning based on personal moral standards

8. Moral Development

9. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
1. At the preconventional level of moral reasoning, the emphasis is on avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs
Moral reasoning is self-oriented
2. At the conventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on social rules and laws
Social approval and being a dutiful citizen are important
3. At the highest level, the postconventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on self-chosen ethical principles
Human rights taking precedent over laws; the avoidance of self-condemnation for violating such principles

10. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional Morality
Stage 1
Punishment orientation
Compliance with rules to avoid punishment
Stage 2
Reward orientation
Compliance with rules to obtain rewards and satisfy own needs

11. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
Conventional Morality
Stage 3
Good-girl/ good-boy orientation
Engages in behavior to get approval of others
Stage 4
Law and order orientation
Behavior is guided by duty to uphold laws and rules for their own sake

12. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
Postconventional Morality
Stage 5
Social contract orientation
Obeys rules because they are necessary for social order but understands rules are relative
Stage 6
Universal ethical principles orientation
Concerned about self-condemnation for violating universal ethical principles based on human rights

13. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg proposed that we all start at the preconventional level as children and as we develop, especially cognitively, we move up the ladder of moral reasoning
The sequence is uniform; however, not everyone reaches the postconventional level

14. Summary of Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
Morality of abstract
principles: to affirm
agreed-upon rights and
personal ethical principles
As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world.
Postconventional
level
Conventional
level
Morality of law and
social rules: to gain
approval or avoid
disapproval
Preconventional
level
Morality of self-interest:
to avoid punishment
or gain concrete rewards

15. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
Shortcomings of Kohlberg’s theory
Studied moral reasoning and not moral behavior
May not have adequately represented the morality of women
The higher stages may be biased toward Western cultures

16. Topic 2 – Psychosocial Development

17. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory of Development
Emphasized the impact of society and culture upon development
Lead to an increase in research on life-span development
Criticized for the lack of solid experimental data to support it
Eight stages of development, each with a major issue or crisis that has to be resolved
Each stage is named after the two sides of the issue relevant in that stage

18. Erikson’s Theory Stage Age Psychosexual Psychosocial Crisis Virtue
Danger
Infancy
to age 2
Oral/ Sensory
Trust vs. Mistrust
Hope
Withdrawal
Early
2-3
Muscular/ Anal
Autonomy vs. Shame
Will
Compulsion/
Play Age
3-5
Locomotor/
Initiative vs. Guilt
Purpose
Inhibition
School Age
6-12
Latency
Industry vs. Inferiority
Competence
Inertia
Adolescence
12-18
Puberty
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Fidelity
Role Repudiation
Young
19-35
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Love
Exclusivity
Adulthood
35-65
Generativity vs.Stagnation
Care
Rejectivity
Old Age
after 65
Integrity vs. Despair
Wisdom
Disdain

19. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages1
Trust vs. Mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants learn that they can or cannot trust others to take care of their basic needs 2
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(1 to 2 years)
Children learn to be self-sufficient in many activities such as toilet training, walking, and exploring; if restrained too much they learn to doubt their abilities and feel shame

20. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages3
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3 to 5 years)
Children learn to assume more responsibility by taking the initiative but will feel guilty if they overstep limits set by parents 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
(5 years to puberty)
Children learn to be competent by mastering new intellectual, social, and physical skills or feel inferior if they fail to develop these skills

21. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages5
Identity vs. Role Confusion
(adolescence)
Adolescents develop a sense of identity by experimenting with different roles; no role experimentation may result in role confusion 6
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(young adulthood)
Young adults form intimate relationships with others or become isolated because of failure to do so

22. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages7
Generativity vs. Stagnation
(middle adulthood)
Middle-aged adults feel they are helping the next generation though their work and child rearing, or they stagnate because they feel that they are not helping 8
Integrity vs. Despair
(late adulthood)
Older adults assess their lives and develop sense of integrity if they find lives have been meaningful; develop sense of despair if not meaningful

23. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate
age Stage Description of Task
Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants
(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and
(2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary Competence vs Children learn the pleasure of applying
(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel
puberty) inferior.

24. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate
age Stage Description of Task
Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by
(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to
20’s) form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.
Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation-
(20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate
40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-
(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older
(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or
up) failure.

25. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development
Probably the greatest impact of Erikson’s theory is that it expanded the study of developmental psychology past adolescence into the stages of adulthood (young, middle, and late)
The sequence in the theory (intimacy issues followed by identity issues) turns out to be the most applicable to men and career-oriented women
Many women may solve these issues in reverse order or simultaneously
For example, a woman may marry and have children and then confront the identity issues when the children become adults

26. Topic 3 – Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
Parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children’s desires, and communicate poorly with their children
Authoritative
Parents are demanding but set rational limits for their children and communicate well with their children
Permissive
Parents make few demands and are overly responsive to their child’s desires, letting their children do pretty much as they please
Uninvolved
Parents minimize both the time they spend with the children and their emotional involvement with them, doing little more than providing for basic needs

27. Parenting Styles
An authoritative parenting style seems to have the most positive effect on cognitive and social development
Children are the most independent, happy, self-reliant, and academically successful of the four parenting styles

28. Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices

29. Topic 4 – Physical Changes and Aging
Adulthood begins in the early twenties and ends with death in old age.
Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric, ending at about age 50 with menopause - the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability.
Andropause - gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males.
Increase in health problems, decrease in reaction time, and stability in intelligence and memory.

30. References
Coon, D. and Mitterer, O. J (2013). Introduction to Psychology (13th ed). Wadsworth Cengage learning. Pp
Feldman, S. R, Collins, J. E. and Green, M. J (2005). Essentials of understanding psychology (2nd ed). McGraw-Hill Ryerson. pp
Kosslyn, M. S, and Rosenberg, R. (2006). Psychology in context. pearson. Pp
Weiten, W. (2009). Psychology: Themes and variations (8th ed). cengage learning. Pp