1. Communicating in Teams and Organizations
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
McShane/Von Glinow OB 5e
Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Communication Defined
The process by which information (a message) is transmitted and understood between two or more people
Effective communication = Transmitting intended meaning (and not just symbols)
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3. A Communication Process Model
Transmit
message via some medium or channel
Sender
Receiver
Form
message
Encode
message
Decode
message
Receive
encoded
Noise
Form
feedback
Decode
feedback
Receive
Encode
feedback
Transmit
feedback via some medium or channel
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4. Different Types of “Noise”
Psychological – Preconceived notions we bring to conversations
Stereotypes, reputations, biases, assumptions
Physical – Any external or environmental stimulus that distracts one from sending or receiving an intended message
Sights, sounds, or smells, others talking in background, background music, a startling noise, acknowledging someone outside of the conversation, faulty or broken equipment (phone, fax machine)
Semantic – Caused by the sender (i.e., the encoder)
Grammar or technical language, slang, jargon, “red flag” words (layoffs, cancer, taxes)
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5. Choosing the Best Communication Channel: Social Acceptance
How well is the communication channel approved and supported by the organization, team, and/or individual?
Communication channel norms
Individual communication channel preferences
Symbolic meaning of the communication channel
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6. Choosing the Best Communication Channel: Media Richness
The channel’s data-carrying capacity needs to be aligned with the communication activity
“Higher” richness =
Ability to convey multiple cues
Allows timely feedback
Allows customized messages
Permits complex symbols
Best to use a richer communication channel when the situation is non-routine and ambiguous
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7. Media Richness
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8. Persuasive Communication (Influence)
Changing another person’s beliefs or attitudes
Spoken communication is usually more persuasive because:
Accompanied by non-verbal communication, adding an emotional “punch” to the message
Provides high-quality, immediate feedback as to whether or not the message has been understood and accepted
Has high social presence, in that the receiver is more sensitive to the message content and more motivated to accept the message
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9. Communication Barriers
Perceptions
Message distortion (e.g., filtering)
Status differences
Semantics or language
Jargon
Ambiguity
In-group language (e.g., generational slang)
Time pressures
Information overload
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10. Message Distortion
Filtering is the selective presentation of the content of communication; in other words, certain pieces of information are omitted from the message
Censoring concerns the purposeful omission of entire messages
The “MUM (keep Mum about Undesirable Messages) Effect”
Exaggeration involves elaborating or overemphasizing certain aspects of a message; people may exaggerate a problem’s magnitude or impact; this may also occur through the minimization of an issue (that is, making something seem like less of a problem than it really is)
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11. Purposeful Distortion in Upward Communication
Situational Antecedents
Pattern of Distortion
Increased distortion because employees send more favorable information and withhold unfavorable (but useful) information
Supervisor’s upward influence
Low
High
Increased distortion because employees screen out information detrimental to their own welfare
Supervisor’s power
Low
High
Increased distortion because employees tend to pass along information that helps their cause
Subordinate’s aspiration for upward mobility
Low
High
Increased distortion because employees are hesitant to pass up all of the information they receive
Subordinate’s trust in the supervisor
Low
High
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12. Information Load Information Overload Time
Episodes of information overload
Information Load
Employee’s information processing capacity
Time
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13. Managing Information Overload
Increase information processing capacity:
Learn to read faster
Scan through documents more efficiently
Remove distractions
Time management
Temporarily work longer hours
Reduce information load:
Buffering
Omitting
Summarizing
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14. Improving Communication
Both parties have motivation and ability to communicate through the same medium or channel
Both parties carry the same “codebook”
Both parties share similar mental models of the communication context
Sender is experienced at communicating the message; receiver is experienced at interpreting it
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15. E-Mail Has Altered Work Communication
Now a preferred medium for coordinating work
Tends to increase communication volume
Significantly alters communication flow
Reduces some selective attention biases
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16. Problems With E-Mail Communication
Communicates emotions poorly
Reduces politeness and respect
Inefficient for ambiguous, complex, or novel situations
Increases information overload
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17. Social Networking Communication
Social network communication clusters people around interests or expertise
Several different types of social network communication
Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn
On-line discussion forums
Avatar sites (e.g., Second Life)
Instant messaging
Wikis and blogs
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18. Non-Verbal Communication
Includes body posture, facial expressions, hand/eye movements, etc.
Influences the meaning of verbal symbols
Less “rule bound” than verbal communication
Important part of emotional labor
Most are automatic and non-conscious
Experts estimate that approx. 65% to 90% of every conversation is non-verbal!
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19. Kinesics (Body Language)
Emblems are specific gestures with specific meaning that are consciously used and understood; often used as shorthand substitutes for words
“Thumbs up” or “okay”
A wave of the hand (hello or good-bye)
A shushing finger to the lips
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20. Kinesics (Body Language)
Illustrators (or iconic gestures) are small gestures used to emphasize, illustrate, or punctuate ideas; we’re often not aware we’re using them
Holding one’s hands apart to illustrate the size of a fish
Hitting yourself on the head when you make a mistake
Pointing forward when you say “let’s go”
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21. Kinesics (Body Language)
Regulators are eye movements, head nods, and postures that regulate conversations
Nodding, smiling, or making the “mm-hmm” sound to show agreement
Head shaking, narrow eyes, or a set jaw show disagreement
Breaking eye contact or changing posture show boredom
Voice inflections or signal whose turn it is to talk
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22. Kinesics (Body Language)
Adaptors – Actions that release physical or emotional tension when someone is anxious
Cracking one’s knuckles
Twirling one’s hair
Biting one’s fingernails
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23. Kinesics (Body Language)
Affect displays – Facial expressions, sometimes supported by body postures, that communicate feelings; we often not aware we’re using them (and may even use them when talking on the telephone)
Raising your eyebrows when surprised
“Making a face” when disgusted
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24. Emotional Contagion
The automatic process of sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking their facial expressions, posture, vocalizations, and other non-verbal behavior
Serves three purposes:
Provides continuous feedback to speaker
Increases emotional understanding of the other person’s experience
Communicates a collective sentiment – that is, “sharing” the experience
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25. Edward Hall’s research (1966)
Proxemics
< 6 in. up to 18 in.
Public space
1 ½ feet to 4 feet
4 feet to 12 feet
Social space
12 feet to 25+ feet
Personal space
Intimate space
Edward Hall’s research (1966)
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26. Cross-Cultural Communication
Verbal differences
Language
Voice intonation
Silence/conversational overlaps
Non-verbal differences
Interpreting non-verbal meaning
Importance of verbal vs. non-verbal
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27. Are There Gender Communication Differences?
Men ♂
Women ♀
Report talk
Rapport talk
Gives advice quickly and directly
Gives advice indirectly and reluctantly
Conversations are negotiations of status
Conversations are bonding events
Less sensitive to non-verbal cues
More sensitive to non-verbal cues
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28. Active Listening
Involves the effective decoding and interpretation of verbal (and non-verbal) messages
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29. Active Listening Process and Strategies
Sensing
• Postpone evaluation
• Avoid interruptions
• Maintain interest
Active
Listening
Responding
• Show interest
• Clarify the message
Evaluating
• Empathize
• Organize information
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30. Active Listening – Types
Appreciative – Listens in a relaxed manner
Empathetic – Focuses on emotions and body language to help interpret the message
Comprehensive – Organizes specific thoughts and focuses on the relationships among different ideas
Discerning – Tries to understand the main message and filter important points
Evaluative – Listens analytically and challenges what is being said
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31. Keys to Effective Listening
Practice being an active listener
Capitalize on thought speed by staying with the speaker and reading between the lines
Listen for ideas – not just facts
Judge content over delivery, style, or appearance
Find an area of common interest
Don’t judge until the speaker has delivered his or her message
Resist distractions
Listen to both favorable and unfavorable information
Challenge yourself – read or listen to complex material
Take notes and take advantage of any handouts, overheads, or other visual aids
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32. Flow of Communication
Downward communication - Flows from higher to lower levels in an organization
Includes management policies, instructions, performance feedback, and official memos
Upward communication – Flows from lower to higher levels in an organization
Includes reports, suggestion boxes, group meetings, grievance procedures, anonymous s, unauthorized websites (Facebook, MySpace, etc.), airing grievances in chat rooms, etc.
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33. Flow of Communication
Lateral communication – Flows between people and/or departments who are at the same level in the organizational hierarchy
External communication occurs with clients, customers, suppliers, or other people outside the organization
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34. Formal Lines of Communication
A task-oriented, formal flow of communication is often a reflection of an organization’s hierarchy
CEO
Sales VP
Manufacturing VP
Marketing
Sales
Manager
Manufact.
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35. Informal Lines of Communication
A social-oriented, informal line of communication that is more casual and represents the majority of day-to-day communication, developing and evolving over time through friendships, usage, and efficiency
CEO
Sales VP
Manufacturing VP
Marketing
Sales
Manager
Manufact.
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36. The Organizational Grapevine
An informal, unofficial communication channel that cuts across all other channels of communication
Many employees listen to the information that the grapevine provides
An organization has multiple grapevine systems
Rumors and gossip are deeply ingrained in organizational life
Managers must be tuned into what is being said via the grapevine and try to keep employees informed of the facts
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37. Grapevine Patterns Single strand Probability Cluster Gossip A F B D JH C E K G I X
Probability Y D C B A
Single strand A C D F J I B
Cluster A J B D H I K F G E C
Gossip
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38. The Organizational Grapevine
Early research findings:
Transmits information rapidly in all directions
Usually follows a cluster chain pattern
More active in homogeneous groups
Transmits some degree of truth
Changes due to the Internet:
becoming the main grapevine medium
Social networks are now global
Public blogs and forums extend gossip to everyone
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39. Grapevine Benefits and Limitations
Fills in missing information from formal sources
Strengthens corporate culture
Relieves anxiety
Signals that problems exist
Limitations:
Distortions might escalate anxiety
Perceived lack of concern for employees when company information is slower than the grapevine
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40. Rumors Four categories of rumors:
A pipe dream or wish fulfillment expresses the wishes and hopes of employees
Bogie or anxiety rumors express the exaggerated fears of employees; they tend to cause general uneasiness
Wedge drivers or divisive rumors are motivated by aggression, hatred, or prejudice; the most damaging type of rumor
Home-stretchers occur while anticipating final decisions or announcements; they tend to “fill the gap” during times of ambiguity or quiet
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41. Using the Grapevine to Your Benefit
Liaison individuals – Those who consistently pass along grapevine information to others
Organizational moles – Those who use the grapevine to enhance their own power and status
While rumors are always cause for concern, they tend to be accurate 75% to 80% of the time!
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