1. Theories of Motivation
What makes us do what we do

2. What is Motivation?
To begin, motivation needs a definition. Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

3. Evolutionary theories
Early motivational theorists based their studies on evolutionary definitions and instinct, a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species. That is, most members of a species share it, and it is very similar from individual to individual, and is not taught.

5. William James (remember him
William James (remember him?) in his 1890 Principles of Psychology labeled instinct as “habits stemming from innate tendencies”, and that people inherit social behavior instincts such as “love, sympathy and modesty”.
Psychologists began labeling human instincts, starting with William McDougall’s 18 all the way up to one sociologist labeling 5,759! This was ultimately worthless, as labels do poor jobs explaining things, like saying you do bad in school because you are an “underachiever”.

6. William James

7. Ethology
Related to instinct is Ethology, which relates behavior to the environment, and is the primarily the study of animal behavior in a natural environment.
This states that Instincts are inherited dispositions that generate specific fixed-action patterns, like the birds build nests. The development and expression of these instincts may change due to different situations, such as the climate or competition with other species.

9. Charles Darwin’s Theory
Charles Darwin had an evolutionary theory as well which closely related to his general evolutionary theory. He stated that instincts were a part of natural selection, with supportive instincts being carried throughout the generations while hindering instincts were dropped.

10. Arousal Theory
After Evolutionary Theory lost steam, it was replaced by Arousal Theory, which states that organisms seeks to obtain and maintain a certain level of arousal. Remember, in psychology, arousal is the state of being psychologically and physiologically awake, alert, and attentive.
Under Arousal Theory, animals seek activities and situations that create a desired level of arousal.

11. Drive-Reduction Theory
The first of the Arousal theories was Drive-Reduction Theory, that states a physiological, or physical, need creates a state of aroused tension, which “drives” an organism to satisfy the need.
An example of this could be eating or drinking (the action) when hunger or thirst (the drive) present themselves.

13. The concept behind Drive-Reduction Theory is that organisms desire homeostasis, or the maintenance of a balanced internal state. It literally translates to “staying the same”.
Body temperature systems are an example of homeostasis; when a warm blooded animal gets cold, it shivers to warm up. When it gets hot, it sweats to cool down.

15. While drives push us to do certain actions, incentives can also pull us. Incentives are positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior. When we associate the smell of food with the drive-reduction benefit of food itself, this incentivizes us towards that action. When incentives are drives are combined, like the hungry man who smells baking bread, we feel strongly driven to perform the action.

16. Optimal Arousal Theory
Living organisms, especially humans, have proven to be more than just homeostatic systems. Optimal Arousal Theory states that there are some motivated behaviors that actually increase arousal.
For most, a nonzero amount of arousal is the optimal level of arousal. If arousal drops below that level, organisms will seek activities that increase arousal, and vice versa.

17. Examples of Optimal Arousal
Well-fed animals may explore their surroundings to gain information, be that animal or human. Monkeys are known in captivity to explore windows, door knobs, and other objects in their rooms, although this provides no immediate benefit but curiosity. You are taking AP Psychology, even though it is more mentally strenuous than not doing so.

18. Thrill Seekers
In 1984, Marvin Zuckerman theorized that the amount of arousal one seeks is a facet of their personality. It explains why some humans are fairly mild, while others, like George Mallory, stated he wanted to climb Mount Everest because “it was there”.

20. Yerkes-Dodson Law
Two early twentieth century psychologists, Yerkes and Dodson, studied the relationship between arousal and performance, and created what is now known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which states that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, after which it decreases. For example, when taking an exam, it is best to moderately aroused: alert, but not trembling with nervousness. We have since learned that optimal arousal varies from task to task, with harder tasks requiring lower levels of arousal (you don’t want to be sweating and shaking when defusing a bomb or doing surgery).

22. Goal Attainment
Goal Attainment, the end result of motivation, can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is based on the internal need for achievement and internal motivators, such as positive feelings or a sense of accomplishment.
Extrinsic motivation is based on external, often tangible, reinforcers, like food, money, or praise.
Trying to give extrinsic rewards for activities may decrease the intrinsic motivation value.

23. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Some needs take priority over others. You can’t worry about studying for a test when you are starving. This ordering of needs was described by Abraham Maslow in 1970 as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which is a pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must be satisfied before high level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

25. Criticisms of Maslow
Modern psychology find Maslow’s hierarchy arbitrary and often incorrect. The needs of the individual is often tied to their cultural and social identity, and while they often agree with the first four levels, the fifth is often up to debate (for instance, people have starved themselves for political reasons).