1. COMPARING CARE – CREATION AND APPLICATION OF CARE INDICATORS
TINE ROSTGAARD
RECWOWE, DOCTORAL WORKSHOP, HELSINKI, SEPT.
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2. Making care comparable – empirical and methodological recommendations
Agenda
Placing social care policies in the political agenda of the Adult-worker model
Making care comparable – empirical and methodological recommendations
Application of care indicators: Care and opinions on child care
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3. 1. Placing care in the political agenda
Employment rates of women and mothers have increased but still a strong potential for a further increase (EU Empl. Strategy)
At the same time, fertility rates have declined -> financing and providing care/pensions
Ageing of the population is likely to increase the number of years where care is needed
Policies may alter the need for care
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4. Care in the Adult worker model
Adult worker model (women and men are assumed equally employable) given impetus to a re-negotiation of formal and informal care responsibilities (Lewis)
Care policy laggard led to a caring deficit  (Hochschild)
Mainstream analysis of welfare state regimes have tended to be ‘malestream’, and ”the study of social care has remained a dark continent within male theorizing” (Anttonen)
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5. Definition of social care
As labour includes formal/informal as well as private/public signification
as a concept is situated in a complex normative framework of obligations, rights and responsibilities
as an activity with both financial and emotional costs
as policies cover formal and informal, paid and unpaid, public and private, services and cash transfers
for both children and older people
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6. 2. Making care comparable
2a. Incompatibilities and methodological problems of present approaches to data collection
2b. Recommendations for analytical approach
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7. 2.a Incompatibilities and methodological problems
General lack of cross-national consensus of what constitutes the policy field of social care for children and older people:
ECEC provision is divided into welfare and education systems.
Models of ECEC:
Welfare model - all services for pre-school children within the social
Nursery education model – Children 0-3 years in welfare system/3+ in pre-school under educational system
Elderly care provision divided into social care systems and health care systems
Models of elderly care:
Care in geriatric units/nursing homes/in the home
Care by health care staff/social care staff
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8. Present approaches to data collection in the ECEC field tend to focus on educational services for the over-3s:
- Provision for the under-3s and the provision from the welfare sector is neglected
Present approaches to data collection in the care for the elderly tend to focus:
In expenditure: On health care
In coverage: On institutional care
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9. Relevance of care services depend on complementary cash benefits:
Care needs may be met in other ways than providing a service.
National schemes vary greatly in terms of length and payment of of leave schemes, tax credits and cash for care benefits for the purchase of private services.
Relevance of service provision may therefore vary.
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10. - Pluralism of provision an increasing phenomenon.
Private provision makes up an increasing bulk of the overall provision of services:
- Pluralism of provision an increasing phenomenon.
- National statistics, however, mainly report public provision.
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11. 2b. Recommendations for data and indicator development - ECEC as an example
Comparison of social care provision should be built on a perspective of functional equivalence in adopting a cross-sectional, cross-benefit approach of comparison:
Taking into account health/educational/welfare care provisions, cash as well as service benefits, including private as well as public
Enables comparisons where high or low coverage is not directly translatable to being either good nor bad
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12. Implications and dream scenario!
Comparisons should consider services from the educational/welfare sectors where the objective is to provide day-time ECEC services containing an element of care or educational development focussed on the child.
Organised - Day time - Containing an element of care or educational activity focussed on the child
Centre-based activities – Age-integrated, day centres and nurseries, nursery education/pre- school activities
Part-time care – Play groups
Home-based – Family day care
Excludes: eg.family education services, play groups incl. parents
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13. Leave for care
Leave schemes should be included and evaluated according to accessibility, length and payment, and figures on take-up should be made comparable
- Benefits: Leave schemes which entitle parents to take time off to care for their children (Maternity, paternity and parental leave, career leave)
- Made comparable: weeks, formula for cash benefit, compensation rate, no. of beneficiaries
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14. Welfare mix
Private provision from voluntary organisations, employers and for-profit agents should be considered
Services: Regulated or publicly financed, or survey based
Financing: tax relief for direct provision or subsidy
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15. Making provision comparable
The inherent structural difference in institutional design of the two ECEC models necessitates adaptation of hours of attendance
Measures to convert term-time and part-time provision into full-time equivalents (FTEs)
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16. - Universal or targeted services
Indicators on availability and access to ECEC services should look at the objective of services, the age groups entitled, affordability and the number of children attending
- Universal or targeted services
- Parental fees (unit cost, % of APW, % of total costs)
- No of children in ECEC and no of places available
- Attendance of 0, 1, 2, 3... years old
- Waiting lists
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17. Quality of care
Indicators on standards of quality of ECEC should include quantitative data as well as qualitative variables:
- Economic indicators: National investments in ECEC, per child in a full-time equivalent place (OECD)
Structural indicators: Opening hours, child: staff ratio, training of staff, full/part-time employment, staff turn-over, physical surroundings
Feedback indicators: parental and employee satisfaction surveys
- ’Soft’ indicators: multi-diciplinary teams of staff, collaboration across ECEC provision
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18. Sources
2000: Rostgaard, T. ‘Developing Comparable Indicators in Early Childhood Care and Education Services’, OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy. Paris: OECD.
2000: Rostgaard, T. ‘Recommendations for data and indicator development for ECEC’ systems. OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy. Paris: OECD.
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19. Data sources EDACwowe OECD Family policy database Eurydice MISSOC EIRO
SOCCARE
European Foundation for Improvement of Work and Family Life
Columbia University Clearinghouse (Sheila Kammerman)
International Leave Policy Network,
Bradshaw 22 country study
SHARE
Eurobarometer
Care architecture project,
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20. Care architecture project
Hansen, Kangas, Rostgaard
0-school age and 65+
7 countries (DK, FIN, S, N, NL, ENG, D, IT)
Public and private arrangements
Cash and care
National/regional
Cross-sectional (health, welfare, education)
Provision, price, quality, social rights
CareData, Index of care, Care variance (Microsimulation), Care cultures, Value of care, Care practises
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21. Preferences or care context: Opinions on child care
3. Application of care indicators
Preferences or care context: Opinions on child care
Olli Kangas & Tine Rostgaard
The Danish National Institute for Social Research
Herlufs Trollesgade 11
DK-1052 Copenhagen K

22. Catherine Hakim: “Work-Lifestyle Choices in the 21st Century”, 2000
3a. Theory
Catherine Hakim: “Work-Lifestyle Choices in the 21st Century”, 2000
Attitudinal factors: work-lifestyle preferences, motivations, aspirations etc. are most important
”Free choices”
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23. Three groups of woman with different preferences:
Work-centred women: career-oriented, family is subordinated to this goal.
Home-centred women: family in the fore, do not consistently indicate plans for work. Home-making is their career.
Adaptive women: “drifters” who adapt their behaviour according to the situation. This group of women should be especially prone to react on public care policies - two other groups are assumed less volatile
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24. Modernisation process and increasing choice
Post-modern theorising on the individualization of Western societies (e.g. Beck 1992; Bauman 2001; Beck, Giddens and Lash 1994):
- Process of individualization frees people from structural constraints
- Eg Modern society offers many degrees of freedom in choosing family-life-work patterns
Attitudinal aspects are growing in importance
->’traditional’ sociological background variables (education, socio-economic class, education etc.) are loosing their relative importance.
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25. 3b. Research questions
1. Are opinions on family-working life more decisive than traditional sociological variables as education, income, socio-economic status?
2. To what extent do the three groups react on care facilities and child care leave possibilities?
3. How does spouse’s opinion affect women’s choices (attitudinal “homogamy”)?
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26. 3c. Data and method
International Social Survey Program (ISSP) third module on Family and Changing Gender Roles 2002
Multinomial logistic regression (MLR)
Model:
Employment status = preference + index of care index of care index of leave + age + number of children number of children education + marital status + employer + previous work history + socio-economic position.
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27. Survey questions 1. The commitment to work 2. Ideal gender roles
1a. Do you think that that women should work outside the home full-time, part-time or not at all under the following circumstances:
- After marrying and before there are children
- When there is a child under school age
- After the youngest child starts school
- After the children leave home
2. Ideal gender roles
2a. Both the man and woman should contribute to the household income
2b. A man’s job is to earn money; woman’s job is to look after the home and family
Merged into 1 index: lifestyle preference scale (where the values for last questions were reversed)
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28. Hypothesis re. care Universalism Prize Quality
Affect mother’s and father’s choices and possibilities to choose between different combinations of work and care practices
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29. - an index for the leave policies,
Care index
A number of indices to measure the variation in welfare state efforts towards families with children:
- an index for the leave policies,
- an index for the day care services for the 0-2 year olds
- an index for the day care services for the 3-school age children
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30. Index on day care Universalism is measured as a combination of:
1. % of the age group in day care
2. a public guarantee of day care provision
3. social expenditure for day care in the country (in PPP per capita of children in ages 0 to the school age.
(Two thirds of expenditure attributed to the children aged 0-2 years, as they attend the most costly day care with a higher staff ratio and lower group sizes)
The components of the universalism indicator are then weighted, awarding day care take-up a weight of 0.5, and social expenditure and the guarantee each 0.25
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31. 1. the parental share of total cost
2. the proportion of the net income for an average production worker, two-parent family with one child aged 1 or 4 years, paid for day care
Each bears a weigth of .5.
Quality of care includes four components of standards.
1. The staff-child ratio
2. Staff education (% with education)
3. Weekly opening hours
4. Whether there is day care available throughout the year or only during school term
(3.-4. measured for the day care schemes with highest take-up)
These four components of the quality index are given a weigth of .25 each.
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32. Index on leave
Maximum available time available (either for mother as maternity leave, the father as paternity leave and the parents in common as parental leave). In praxis: we awarded the mother all the available leave time, except for the father’s quota
A quota, reserved for the parent who does not take the major part of the leave, i.e. father’s quota.
Compensation paid during the leave for an average production worker.
=> Time X compensation rate for proxy of leave entitlements
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33. Table 1. Care index, day care for children 0-2 years and 3-school age, and leave entitlements.
Denmark
Finland
Norway
Sweden NL UK
Germany
Day care index children 0-2 years
Universalism
0,97
0,69
0,44
0,78
0,24
0,19
0,10
Reversed values!
Cost
0,51
0,70
0,64
0,80
0,37
0,00
0,72
Quality
0,76
0,79
0,74
0,71
Total
2,24
2,15
1,80
2,37
1,36
0,90
1,19
Day care index children 3-school age
0,96
0,81
0,48
0,49
0,23
0,35
0,25
0,09
0,61
1,00
0,32
0,85
0,91
0,60
0,52
0,63
1,77
1,92
1,38
2,42
2,10
1,75
1,30
Leave index
2,51
3,58
2,03
3,22
1,22
1,09
1,15
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34. 3d. Findings
Constraints and opportunities are not similar for all women across countries, and within countries:
Structural factors (educational attainment, number and age of children) turned out to be important predictors:
- Highly educated women and women without children (not surprisingly) were more prone to be employed, and more often full-time than other women
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35. Generous leave programs and part-time work are mutually exclusive
Leave effect
Generous leave programs and part-time work are mutually exclusive
- Do women take leave instead of working part-time because of lack of part-time employment?
Generous leave schemes and full-time employment are combinatory factors
- Does this reflect ‘the Finnish case’? And in general the Nordic employment regime?
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36. Effect of care cultures?
Care service effect
High quality day care positive effect on full-time employment ->good day care for the smaller children help women who want to work full-time when their children are small
Effect of care cultures?
In countries where there is good day care for the 3-school age children women are more likely to work part-time
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37. Still:
High provision of day care is positively associated with the overall probability of women’s employment.
And partner effect:
Strong evidence that male partner’s family-orientation is linked to the wife’s level of employment, indicating that this is an important relationship to include in the understanding of female labour market behaviour
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38. Source
2007: Kangas, O. & Rostgaard, T. ‘Preferences or context: opinions of child care’, Journal of European Social Policy, 17 (3)
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