1. Pregnancy and Human Development

2. From Egg to Embryo
Pregnancy – events that occur from fertilization until the infant is born
Conceptus – the developing offspring
Gestation period – from the last menstrual period until birth
Preembryo – conceptus from fertilization until it is two weeks old
Embryo – conceptus during the third through the eighth week
Fetus – conceptus from the ninth week through birth

3. Relative Size of Human Conceptus
Figure 28.1

4. Accomplishing Fertilization
The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours
Sperm is viable 24 to 72 hours
For fertilization to occur, coitus must occur no more than:
Three days before ovulation
24 hours after ovulation
Fertilization – when a sperm fuses with an egg to form a zygote

5. Sperm Transport and Capacitation
Fates of ejaculated sperm
Leak out of the vagina immediately after deposition
Destroyed by the acidic vaginal environment
Fail to make it through the cervix
Dispersed in the uterine cavity or destroyed by phagocytic leukocytes
Reach the uterine tubes
Sperm must undergo capacitation before they can penetrate the oocyte

6. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration
An ovulated oocyte is encapsulated by:
The corona radiata and zona pellucida
Extracellular matrix
Sperm binds to the zona pellucida and undergoes the acrosomal reaction
Enzymes are released near the oocyte
Hundreds of acrosomes release their enzymes to digest the zona pellucida

7. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration
Once a sperm makes contact with the oocyte’s membrane:
Beta protein finds and binds to receptors on the oocyte membrane
Alpha protein causes it to insert into the membrane

8. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration
Figure 28.2a

9. Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate the oocyte
Blocks to Polyspermy
Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate the oocyte
Two mechanisms ensure monospermy
Fast block to polyspermy – membrane depolarization prevents sperm from fusing with the oocyte membrane
Slow block to polyspermy – zonal inhibiting proteins (ZIPs):
Destroy sperm receptors
Cause sperm already bound to receptors to detach

10. Completion of Meiosis II and Fertilization
Upon entry of sperm, the secondary oocyte:
Completes meiosis II
Casts out the second polar body
The ovum nucleus swells, and the two nuclei approach each other
When fully swollen, the two nuclei are called pronuclei
Fertilization – when the pronuclei come together

11. Events Immediately Following Sperm Penetration
Figure 28.3

12. Preembryonic Development
The first cleavage produces two daughter cells called blastomeres
Morula – the 16 or more cell stage (72 hours old)
By the fourth or fifth day the preembryo consists of 100 or so cells (blastocyst)

13. Preembryonic Development
Blastocyst – a fluid-filled hollow sphere composed of:
A single layer of trophoblasts
An inner cell mass
Trophoblasts take part in placenta formation
The inner cell mass becomes the embryonic disc

14. Cleavage: From Zygote to Blastocyst
Degenerating zona pellucida
Inner cell mass
Blastocyst cavity
Blastocyst cavity
Trophoblast
(a) Zygote (fertilized egg)
(b) 4-cell stage 2 days
(c) Morula 3 days
(d) Early blastocyst 4 days
(e) Implanting blastocyst 6 days
Fertilization (sperm meets egg)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte (egg)
(d)
Ovulation
(e)
Uterus
Endometrium
Cavity of uterus
Figure 28.4

15. The trophoblasts then proliferate and form two distinct layers
Implantation
Begins six to seven days after ovulation when the trophoblasts adhere to a properly prepared endometrium
The trophoblasts then proliferate and form two distinct layers
Cytotrophoblast – cells of the inner layer that retain their cell boundaries
Syncytiotrophoblast – cells in the outer layer that lose their plasma membranes and invade the endometrium

16. The implanted blastocyst is covered over by endometrial cells
Implantation
The implanted blastocyst is covered over by endometrial cells
Implantation is completed by the fourteenth day after ovulation

17. Implantation of the Blastocyst
Figure 28.5a

18. Implantation of the Blastocyst
Figure 28.5b

19. Between the second and third month, the placenta:
Implantation
Viability of the corpus luteum is maintained by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the trophoblasts
hCG prompts the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone and estrogen
Chorion – developed from trophoblasts after implantation, continues this hormonal stimulus
Between the second and third month, the placenta:
Assumes the role of progesterone and estrogen production
Is providing nutrients and removing wastes

20. Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy
Figure 28.6

21. Formation of the placenta from:
Placentation
Formation of the placenta from:
Embryonic trophoblastic tissues
Maternal endometrial tissues

22. The chorion develops fingerlike villi, which:
Placentation
The chorion develops fingerlike villi, which:
Become vascularized
Extend to the embryo as umbilical arteries and veins
Lie immersed in maternal blood
Decidua basalis – part of the endometrium that lies between the chorionic villi and the stratum basalis

23. Placentation
Decidua capsularis – part of the endometrium surrounding the uterine cavity face of the implanted embryo
The placenta is fully formed and functional by the end of the third month
Embryonic placental barriers include:
The chorionic villi
The endothelium of embryonic capillaries
The placenta also secretes other hormones – human placental lactogen, human chorionic thyrotropin, and relaxin

24. Placentation
Figure 28.7a-c

25. Placentation
Figure 28.7d

26. Placentation
Figure 28.7f

27. These layers form two of the four embryonic membranes
Germ Layers
The blastocyst develops into a gastrula with three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm
Before becoming three-layered, the inner cell mass subdivides into the upper epiblast and lower hypoblast
These layers form two of the four embryonic membranes

28. Embryonic Membranes
Amnion – epiblast cells form a transparent membrane filled with amniotic fluid
Provides a buoyant environment that protects the embryo
Helps maintain a constant homeostatic temperature
Amniotic fluid comes from maternal blood, and later, fetal urine

29. Embryonic Membranes
Yolk sac – hypoblast cells that form a sac on the ventral surface of the embryo
Forms part of the digestive tube
Produces earliest blood cells and vessels
Is the source of primordial germ cells

30. Allantois – a small outpocketing at the caudal end of the yolk sac
Embryonic Membranes
Allantois – a small outpocketing at the caudal end of the yolk sac
Structural base for the umbilical cord
Becomes part of the urinary bladder
Chorion – helps form the placenta
Encloses the embryonic body and all other membranes

31. The primary germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
Gastrulation
During the 3rd week, the two-layered embryonic disc becomes a three-layered embryo
The primary germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
Primitive streak – raised dorsal groove that establishes the longitudinal axis of the embryo

32. As cells begin to migrate:
Gastrulation
As cells begin to migrate:
The first cells that enter the groove form the endoderm
The cells that follow push laterally between the cells forming the mesoderm
The cells that remain on the embryo’s dorsal surface form the ectoderm
Notochord – rod of mesodermal cells that serves as axial support

33. Serve as primitive tissues from which all body organs will derive
Primary Germ Layers
Serve as primitive tissues from which all body organs will derive
Ectoderm – forms structures of the nervous system and skin epidermis
Endoderm – forms epithelial linings of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems
Mesoderm – forms all other tissues
Endoderm and ectoderm are securely joined and are considered epithelia

34. Primary Germ Layers
Figure 28.8a-e

35. Primary Germ Layers
Figure 28.8e-h

36. By the 8th week all organ systems are recognizable
Organogenesis
Gastrulation sets the stage for organogenesis, the formation of body organs
By the 8th week all organ systems are recognizable

37. Specialization of Ectoderm
Neurulation – the first event of organogenesis gives rise to the brain and spinal cord
Ectoderm over the notochord thickens, forming the neural plate
The neural plate folds inward as a neural groove with prominent neural folds

38. Specialization of Ectoderm
By the 22nd day, neural folds fuse into a neural tube, which pinches off into the body
The anterior end becomes the brain; the rest becomes the spinal cord
Associated neural crest cells give rise to cranial, spinal, and sympathetic ganglia

39. Specialization of Ectoderm: Neuralization
Figure 28.9a, b

40. Specialization of Ectoderm: Neuralization
Figure 28.9c,d

41. Specialization of Endoderm
Embryonic folding begins with lateral folds
Next, head and tail folds appear
An endoderm tube forms the epithelial lining of the GI tract
Organs of the GI tract become apparent, and oral and anal openings perforate
Endoderm forms epithelium linings of the hollow organs of the digestive and respiratory tracts

42. Folding of the Embryonic Body
Figure 28.10a-d

43. Endodermal Differentiation
Figure 28.11

44. Specialization of the Mesoderm
First evidence is the appearance of the notochord
Three mesoderm aggregates appear lateral to the notochord
Somites, intermediate mesoderm, and double sheets of lateral mesoderm

45. Specialization of the Mesoderm
The 40 pairs of somites have three functional parts:
Sclerotome – produce the vertebrae and ribs
Dermatome – help form the dermis of the skin on the dorsal part of the body
Myotome – form the skeletal muscles of the neck, trunk, and limbs

46. Specialization of the Mesoderm
Intermediate mesoderm forms the gonads and the kidneys
Lateral mesoderm consists of somatic and splanchnic mesoderm

47. Specialization of the Mesoderm
Somatic mesoderm forms the:
Dermis of the skin in the ventral region
Parietal serosa of the ventral body cavity
Bones, ligaments, and dermis of the limbs
Splanchnic mesoderm forms:
The heart and blood vessels
Most connective tissues of the body

48. Specialization of the Mesoderm
Figure 28.12

49. Development of Fetal Circulation
By the end of the 3rd week:
The embryo has a system of paired vessels
The vessels forming the heart have fused

50. Development of Fetal Circulation
Unique vascular modifications seen in prenatal development include umbilical arteries and veins, and three vascular shunts (occluded at birth)
Ductus venosus – venous shunt that bypasses the liver
Foramen ovale – opening in the interatrial septa to bypass pulmonary circulation
Ductus arteriosus – transfers blood from the right ventricle to the aorta

51. Circulation in Fetus and Newborn
Figure 28.13

52. Effects of Pregnancy: Anatomical Changes
Chadwick’s sign – the vagina develops a purplish hue
Breasts enlarge and their areolae darken
The uterus expands, occupying most of the abdominal cavity
Lordosis is common due to the change of the body’s center of gravity
Relaxin causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to relax
Typical weight gain is about 29 pounds

53. Relative Uterus Size During Pregnancy
Figure 28.15

54. Effects of Pregnancy: Metabolic Changes
The placenta secretes human placental lactogen (hPL), also called human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), which stimulates the maturation of the breasts
hPL promotes growth of the fetus and exerts a maternal glucose-sparing effect
Human chorionic thyrotropin (hCT) increases maternal metabolism
Parathyroid hormone levels are high, ensuring a positive calcium balance

55. Effects of Pregnancy: Physiological Changes
GI tract – morning sickness occurs due to elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone
Urinary system – urine production increases to handle the additional fetal wastes
Respiratory system – edematous and nasal congestion may occur
Dyspnea (difficult breathing) may develop late in pregnancy

56. Effects of Pregnancy: Physiological Changes
Cardiovascular system – blood volume increases %
Venous pressure from lower limbs is impaired, resulting in varicose veins

57. Parturition: Initiation of Labor
Estrogen reaches a peak during the last weeks of pregnancy causing myometrial weakness and irritability
Weak Braxton Hicks contractions may take place
As birth nears, oxytocin and prostaglandins cause uterine contractions
Emotional and physical stress:
Activates the hypothalamus
Sets up a positive feedback mechanism, releasing more oxytocin

58. Parturition: Initiation of Labor
Figure 28.16

59. Stages of Labor: Dilation Stage
From the onset of labor until the cervix is fully dilated (10 cm)
Initial contractions are 15–30 minutes apart and 10–30 seconds in duration
The cervix effaces and dilates
The amnion ruptures, releasing amniotic fluid (breaking of the water)
Engagement occurs as the infant’s head enters the true pelvis

60. Stages of Labor: Dilation Stage
Figure 28.17a, b

61. Stages of Labor: Expulsion Stage
From full dilation to delivery of the infant
Strong contractions occur every 2–3 minutes and last about 1 minute
The urge to push increases in labor without local anesthesia
Crowning occurs when the largest dimension of the head is distending the vulva

62. Stages of Labor: Expulsion Stage
Figure 28.17c

63. Stages of Labor: Expulsion Stage
The delivery of the placenta is accomplished within 30 minutes of birth
Afterbirth – the placenta and its attached fetal membranes
All placenta fragments must be removed to prevent postpartum bleeding

64. Stages of Labor: Expulsion Stage
Figure 28.17d

65. Each observation is given a score of 0 to 2
Extrauterine Life
At 1-5 minutes after birth, the infant’s physical status is assessed based on five signs: heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, and reflexes
Each observation is given a score of 0 to 2
Apgar score – the total score of the above assessments
8-10 indicates a healthy baby
Lower scores reveal problems

66. This excites the respiratory centers to trigger the first inspiration
First Breath
Once carbon dioxide is no longer removed by the placenta, central acidosis occurs
This excites the respiratory centers to trigger the first inspiration
This requires tremendous effort – airways are tiny and the lungs are collapsed
Once the lungs inflate, surfactant in alveolar fluid helps reduce surface tension

67. Occlusion of Fetal Blood Vessels
Umbilical arteries and vein constrict and become fibrosed
Fates of fetal vessels
Proximal umbilical arteries become superior vesical arteries and distal parts become the medial umbilical ligaments
The umbilical vein becomes the ligamentum teres
The ductus venosus becomes the ligamentum venosum
The foramen ovale becomes the fossa ovalis
The ductus arteriosus becomes the ligamentum arteriosum

68. Unstable period lasting 6-8 hours after birth
Transitional Period
Unstable period lasting 6-8 hours after birth
The first 30 minutes the baby is alert and active
Heart rate increases ( beats/min.)
Respiration is rapid and irregular
Temperature falls

69. Activity then diminishes and the infant sleeps about three hours
Transitional Period
Activity then diminishes and the infant sleeps about three hours
A second active stage follows in which the baby regurgitates mucus and debris
After this, the infant sleeps, with waking periods occurring every 3-4 hours

70. The production of milk by the mammary glands
Lactation
The production of milk by the mammary glands
Estrogens, progesterone, and lactogen stimulate the hypothalamus to release prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
The anterior pituitary responds by releasing prolactin

71. Lactation
Colostrum
Solution rich in vitamin A, protein, minerals, and IgA antibodies
Is released the first 2–3 days
Is followed by true milk production

72. Lactation and Milk Let-down Reflex
After birth, milk production is stimulated by the sucking infant
Figure 28.18

73. Breast Milk Advantages of breast milk for the infant
Fats and iron are better absorbed
Its amino acids are metabolized more efficiently than those of cow’s milk
Beneficial chemicals are present – IgA, other immunoglobulins, complement, lysozyme, interferon, and lactoperoxidase
Interleukins and prostaglandins are present, which prevent overzealous inflammatory responses
Its natural laxatives help cleanse the bowels of meconium