1. Observational Research
Chapter 12:
Observational Research

2. Observational Research
Naturalistic observation
Describing behaviors in natural settings
Observer is unobtrusive, or
Habituation assumed
e.g., with animal observations (Goodall example)
Examples:
Snack selection at movie theaters
Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar
Helping behaviors in a preschool setting

3. The Research Setting: Natural and Contrived Settings
Natural setting – A location or site where a behavior of interest normally occurs
Researcher does not have to arrange or manipulate the setting
Making observations can be difficult
Contrived setting, or structured setting – A location or site arranged to mimic the natural setting within which a behavior of interest normally occurs
Control factors that are impossible to control in natural setting; facilitate occurrence of a behavior

4. Techniques for Conducting Naturalistic Observation
Making unobtrusive observations
Unobtrusive observation: Observe behavior in a way that does not interfere with or change a participant’s behavior in a research setting
Remain hidden
Habituate participants to the researcher
Use a confederate
Use indirect measures
Ethical considerations?

5. Observational Research
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Experimenter joins group being observed
e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult
Data recording problems
Ethical issues
Experimenters changing the group

6. Qualitative Research Designs
Common pitfalls associated with participant observation
The “eager speaker” bias
The “good citizen” bias
The “stereotype” bias
To gain entry into a group or culture without causing participants to react or change their behavior:
Researchers can covertly enter a group
Researchers can announce or request entry into a group

7. Qualitative Research Designs
Case study – Analysis of an individual, group, organization, or event used to illustrate a phenomenon, explore new hypotheses, or compare the observations of many cases
Case history: An in-depth description of the history and background of the individual, group, or organization observed.

8. Qualitative Research Designs
Three types of case studies
Illustrative: Investigates rare or unknown cases
Exploratory: Preliminary analysis that explores potentially important hypotheses
Collective: Compares the individual analysis of many related cases
A case study, while qualitative in design, can be used to measure quantitative data

9. Observational Research
Challenges facing observational methods
Absence of control
But falsification of strong claims possible
Observer bias
Use of behavior checklists
Interobserver reliability
Participant reactivity
Use of unobtrusive measures helps
Ethics
Consent and privacy issues

10. Observational Research
Research example
Naturalistic observation in a science museum
Consent obtained (unusual in observational research)
Event sampling used
Results  parents (Dads and Moms) explain science concepts more to their sons than to their daughters

11. An Overview of Survey Designs
Survey research design – The use of a survey, administered either in written form or orally, to quantify, describe or characterize an individual or a group
Survey: Series of questions or statements, called items, used in a questionnaire or an interview to measure the self-reports or responses of respondents
A survey can also be called a questionnaire or self-report because many surveys specifically include questions in which participants report about themselves – their attitudes, opinions, beliefs, activities, emotions, and so on

12. Types of Survey Items
The questions or statements in a survey often called items
Open-ended items: Allows the respondent to give any response in his or her own words, without restriction
Most often used with qualitative research design
Researchers develop ways to code participant responses
Anticipate and list all possible examples of potential responses in terms of how participants might write or express their responses

13. Types of Survey Items
Partially open-ended items: Includes a few restricted answer options and then a last one that allows participants to respond in their own words in case the few restricted options do not fit with the answer they want to give
Researchers can code each answer option as a number
The last open-ended option could be coded further or just analyzed without further coding

14. Types of Survey Items
Restricted items: A question or statement in a survey that includes a restricted number of answer options to which participants must respond
Likert scale: A numeric response scale used to indicate a participant’s rating or level of agreement with a question or statement
The main advantage is that survey responses can be easily entered or coded for statistical analysis
The main limitation is that the analysis is restricted to the finite number of options provided to participants
Ex. I have nightmares: (Circle one)
Never Sometimes Often

15. Rules for Writing Survey Items
1. Keep it simple
Ex. Instead of asking “How satiated do you feel?”, it would be better to ask “How full do you feel?”
2. Avoid double-barreled items – Items that ask two different questions simultaneously
Ex. I enjoy the time we spend together and dislike the time we are apart
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
3. Use neutral or unbiased language – Do not use language that is offensive; responses may be in reaction to the language used
Ex. Identify persons 18 years and older as women and men, capitalize Black and White to identify racial groups

16. Rules for Writing Survey Items
4. Minimize the use of negative wording – The use of words that negates or indicates the opposite of what was otherwise described
Ex. “How much do you not like working?” can be rephrased to “How much do you dislike working?”
5. Avoid the response set pitfall – Tendency for participants to respond the same way to all items in a survey when the direction of ratings is the same for all items in the survey
Reverse coded item: Item that is phrased in the semantically opposite direction of most other items in a survey, and is scored by coding or entering responses for the item in reverse order from how they are listed
“I feel happy most of the time”
“I feel sad most of the time”
6. Use rating scales consistently – Use only one rating scale at a time. In the simplest scenario, use only one scale if possible

17. Rules for Writing Survey Items
7. Limit the points on a rating scale – Keep the scale between 3 and 10 points.
Unless using dichotomous scales in which only two responses are possible
Ex. True/false, yes/no, agree/disagree
8. Label or anchor the rating scale points –Anchors: Adjectives given to describe the end points of a rating scale to give the scale greater meaning
9. Minimize survey length – Write the survey to be as short and concise as possible, yet still able to convey what is intended to measure

18. Administering Surveys
Written surveys
In-person surveys: More participants are willing to complete a survey administered in person but this method is more time- consuming
Mail surveys: Higher rates of respondents choosing not to complete and return but requires less of the researcher’s time
Internet surveys: Popular and cost effective. Main concern is that results may be limited to individuals who have access to computers with online capabilities and to individuals who know enough about using computers

19. Survey Research Samples vs. populations
Biased vs. representative samples
Self selection bias
Probability sampling
Random sampling
Each member of pop. has equal chance of being selected as member of sample

20. Survey Research Probability sampling Stratified sampling
Separate individuals according to some important variable (strata), then randomly sample some individuals from each stratum
Cluster sampling
Identify natural/convenient clusters
randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common
Example: Wages in Brooklyn
Stratified
Cluster

21. Survey Research Nonprobability sampling
Does NOT provide representative samples, but are easier to do
Convenience sampling
Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”)
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate
Often done with online surveys