1. Defining the problem
Introduction This unit will explore questioning techniques that can be used to identify and define a clinical problem. The first section will explore the art of reference interviewing, including preparing for the interview, conducting the interview and making use of different questioning techniques. The second section will focus on how to formulate an answerable search question to underpin a literature search using frameworks from health and social care.

2. Reference interviews
In this section we are going to look at the purpose of a reference interview, preparation for the interview, the interview process and methodology, and questioning techniques.
Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to:
Describe the key elements in preparing for a reference interview
Conduct an effective reference interview
Formulate a clear search statement with an enquirer
Understand how your approach to questioning determines the answers you get

3. User needs
When conducting a reference interview your initial aim is to articulate the problem that the enquirer presents. The enquirer will often raise a question or problem from which you will need to define and articulate a search question. In doing so, you will need to consider the question asked, its concepts and their relationships, and how the search will be formulated. Consideration will also have to be given to how the information is to be retrieved from its source, such as a database, book or website. In order to define the search question, you may want to explore some exploratory questions: Is the question answerable? What are the terms and synonyms that could be used? How can the information be applied practically, both in the search question formulation and in an actionable format as the product of the search? Over what depth and breadth does the search need to be conducted? Is it over a limited range of resources, or is a systematic search required? Finally you will need to determine the limits of a search. On a practical level the enquirer may have deadlines that they have to meet and they may not have resource to sift through a large bibliographic database of articles. Would a short synthesis of the results be preferable? There may be a date from which information may become obsolete or irreverent to the search question. Consideration should be given to choice of other filters such as language and the type of literature required, such as grey literature, secondary and primary studies.

4. Preparation for the interview
Preparation is key to a successful reference interview. In order to understand and guide the enquirer to a negotiated search question, it is important to understand the initial search question and concepts. If it is a topic which you are unfamiliar with background reading and understanding of sources is vitally important to both the interview and the search process. A search template to structure the interview is often beneficial. The template should be based around the search question, with prompts for a general background to the search request, the specific question asked, and how the enquirer will use the information. A range of formats are available from a list of references, or bibliography, through to a detailed synthesis or report of the search findings. In what formats are you able to present the search results, and what would the enquirer want to receive? Lastly consider search limits, such as the types of information the enquirer is interested in you identifying and the limits they would like applied to the search, such as dates and languages. Whilst every search is unique, and a template will need to be modified for subject-specific searches, a generic template will help establish a consistency in approach and ensure that the information profession covers the major points at the interview stage.

5. Activity:
Create a template or pro-forma which you can use and adapt during an interview with an enquirer. Consider the different formats in which interviews can take place: face-to-face, telephone, online, via , etc. How would you adapt the template for these interview formats?

6. The interview
Following the interview preparation you should have a good background to the initial search question. The interview itself is an opportunity to assist the enquirer to articulate exactly what they need and for you to define the search question. The search question needs to be broken into its component parts, this makes it is easier to identify search elements and to ask for the subject or terminology to be clarified and explained. The interview gives you a chance to clarify terminology, such as terms, acronyms and synonyms, and how these terms are related to each other in order to form the search strategy. It is beneficial to ask the enquirer about any relevant sources that they may know about or have tried searching already, especially if you are unfamiliar with the topic area.

7. Use the interview to negotiate the scale of the search, such as:
Time factors (deadline)
Level of search required
The sources for retrieval
Language
Geography
Dates
Output: how will the search results be translated into an actionable format?
You should use your expertise to advise the enquirer on information retrieval issues with regard to the scale of the search. If a date limit is applied for example, this should be as a direct result of the search question parameters, not used arbitrarily.
Remember to take meticulous notes throughout the interview!

8. Further interviews
It may be necessary to conduct a further interview with the enquirer, or to go back to the enquirer with further questions if needs be. Upon reflection some search concepts may not be clear, or when searching they may not be relevant to the search results. Before discarding terms, it may be necessary to check with the enquirer that they are happy with the new search strategy. Often the scale of the search will need to be adapted depending on the number and relevance of search results. Here it is important to pause and re-check with the enquirer. It may even be necessary to re-scope the search strategy or even the negotiated search question. Sometimes it is helpful to report the search progress as the search is developing, some enquirers will request progress reports. It is therefore important to record your search, such as terms used and the dates which you searched the information source. Be as flexible to the needs of the enquirer as possible and negotiate how you will report the search progress and the method and frequency of doing so at the interview stage.

9. Questioning techniques
Consideration of the right type of question and how you formulate that question will define how successful the reference interview will be.
There are various question types that can be used during reference interviews:
Closed: A closed question usually receives a very short factual answer.
Open: An open question, usually beginning with ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’, will often elicit a longer answer. These questions are useful in asking for background information on the request. ‘Tell me…’ and ‘describe…’ can also be used in the same way.
Statement questions: This is a statement with a rising intonation or a statement with a question mark. These questions can be used to confirm your understanding of an answer.
Funnel: This is a useful technique that involves starting with general questions, and then honing in on a point in each answer, and asking more and more detail at each level.

10. Activity:
Refer to the reference interview template that you created earlier. Have you used questions as prompts? What responses would you expect to hear as a result of those questions? Considering the above points, are there any ways in which you could modify the questions to get a richer response from the enquirer, and how would you use these questions at interview?

11. Some general pointers for reference interviews are given below:
Listen attentively
Ask questions to explore a person’s words, statements or metaphors
Where appropriate, repeat back the individuals words, phrases, gestures and/or metaphors exactly even if it does not sound grammatically correct
Use a curios tone, be genuinely interested and allow time for the response to emerge
Lay your concepts or ideas and assumptions on the table – this is especially useful in confirming your understanding of the enquiry
Continue to ask questions until you believe there is a mutual joint understanding, especially if redefining the search question
After asking your question, wait for an answer; don’t answer your own questions
Ask one question at a time
Follow the enquirer’s train of thought while getting what you need
Get the customer to tell you as much as possible as to what they are looking for. Perhaps you can build this into your search request form if you have one
Summarise their response to check for understanding

12. Bear in mind that your approach may differ depending on the format of the reference interview. Face-to-face interviews give you time to adapt your approach and questioning techniques dependent upon the body language of the enquirer, whilst a telephone interview does not allow for this, and pauses whilst the enquirer formulates their answer may feel more uncomfortable. A written response gives the enquirer time to compose their thoughts and answers, but may require further extrapolation of responses if the enquirer is not clear in their answers, whilst with an online enquiry service it is expected that both participants would give an instantaneous response.

13. Assessment
Now, using the reference interview template you created earlier, go to back to the Module 4 week one page and complete the assessment. You will upload your own template and critically appraise a selection of the templates uploaded by participants.

14. Further reading Textbooks
Ross CS. (2002) Conducting the reference interview: a how-to-do-it manual for librarians. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers
Lankes DR. (2008) Virtual reference service: from competencies to assessment. London: Facet Publishing
Kovacs DK. (2007) The virtual reference handbook: interview and information delivery techniques for the chat and environments. London: Facet Publishing
Articles
Reference and User Services Association. Guidelines for behavioral performance of reference and information service providers [cited 17 March 2014]; Available from:
Platt J, Benson P. Improving the Virtual Reference Experience: How closely do academic libraries adhere to RUSA guidelines? Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning. 2010;4(1-2):30-42 [includes survey questions as an appendix for evaluation purposes]
Thompson S. To script or not to script: or, the challenge of being both efficient and personal when interacting with virtual reference patrons. The Reference Librarian. (2010);51(4):363-66