1. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
One in every hundred
The assessment of females who sexual abuse.
Gareth Mc Gibbon
@GARETHMCGIBBON
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

2. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Where are we?
Today is 22nd March 1998
Understanding the base rate is fundamental.
1-3% sexual recidivism rate.
Identify the one in 100 who will re-offend.
Who is ‘high risk’?
According to Franca Cortoni of the University of Moneral we are approximately 20 years behind the research on male sexual offenders ( so if we were to place this on a musical time line we are currently listening to ‘getting jiggy wit it’ by Will Smith and we have to yet to hear Better the Devil You Know by Steps, Crazy Frog by Axel F, Its Chico Time by Chico, ‘That’s my Goal’ by Shane Ward before we can get to everything by Ed Sheeran – so there is a significant struggle and lots of pain ahead of us before we get close to what our current understanding is of male sexual offender risk….. but we are further than we were and we have now a albeit limited, an empirical foundation, a base rate of recidisim, from which evaluators can draw to improve the validity of their assessment of female sexual offenders
Understanding the base rate of recidivism is fundamental to the evaluation of risk of future offending. Although we now have a solid understanding of the recidivism rates of male sexual offenders – similar knowledge is only starting to accumulate for females. Research would suggest that the sexual recidivism rates for females in most studies is in the range of 1-3% (over a 5 year follow up period) in comparison to 13-14% for males (violent recidivism – 3-6% and 21% for any type of recidivism.
The more infrequent an event, the more difficult it becomes to predict accurately. A statistical measure of the accuracy of a prediction instrument is the rate of false positives (someone predicted to re-offend who does not) and false negatives (someone predicted not to re-offend who does).
As the base rate of a phenomenon approaches zero, it becomes increasingly likely that
predicted instances of that phenomenon will result in a false positive prediction. In the case of female sex offenders, the observed rates of sexual re-offending have been between 1% and 3%, obviously quite close to zero. In such a situation, it requires an extremely accurate measure to identify the one in 100 who will re-offend, without producing a high number of
false positives.
Defining high risk is not a comparative term. Women universally show lower recidivism rates than men, while some factors may indicate a higher risk of recidivism among some women the comparison is in relation to other females sex offenders – not to some non-existent standard applied to both male and females, and it could be reliably argued that high risk as a relative concept to male sexual offending is actually low risk
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

3. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Static Risk
General & violent recidivism factors in males.
Younger age
Single
Lifestyle instability
Rule violations
Prior criminal history
Sexual recidivism factors
Prior sexual offences
Male, stranger and/or unrelated victims.
Static indicators associated with higher general risk in females
Prior criminal history.
Younger age (less than 30 years)?
Potential sexual recidivism indicators.
Prior non-sexual child abuse offences
Prior sexual offences
Solo Offender?
Static risk factors are features of offenders histories that can not be changed such as criminal offence history, victim type, a proliferation in sample groups of indicators can be linked to recidivism rates. From these we get static assessment tools like Static 99 R and RM2K
In males these are well established – for general & violent we have etc For sexual recidivism we have (Andrews & Bonta 2005) Hanson & Morton Bourgon)
An examination of the research on female offenders does not demonstrate the same clear markers (and all of these factors should be considered with caution) but just like males, a prior criminal history is indicative of a higher risk of recidivism generally. Not surprising as its an indicator of anti-sociality and common to all types of offenders
N=471 Vandiver 2007; Freeman & Sandler (2008) n=390 female sex offenders registered in New York also found that prior criminal history related to recidivism, (specifically prior misdeamonours, prior drug offences and prior violent offences) were only related to non-sexual recidivism. Younger age also related only to non-sexual recidivism.
Also found that high risk (as per NY state risk assessment system) was associated with the number of prior sexual arrests and interestingly the number of prior child abuse offences of any type was only related to sexual recidivism. Perhaps because they are the primary care givers they might come to the attention of the criminal justice system for the non-sexual abuse of children, alternatively it may be because the sexual abuse of children, for these women, is part of a broader pattern of abuse against children. This issue appears unique to women and certainly warrants further empirical investigation.
Solo – offender – well established that a number of sexual offenders commit their offences in the company of a co-offender, typically their male partner, however in a follow up of 61 female sexual offenders incarcerated in Canada between 1972 & 98 found that the two sexual recidivists in the study were the only ones who had engaged in solo offending.. Very limited study but the finding may serve as an important risk marker for sexual recidivism among women.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

4. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Dynamic Risk Factors
Dynamic risk factors for women are unknown.
Assessments of risk/need can only be based on common factors among FSO’s that are suggestive of a relationship with offending.
While FSO’s possess some unique features, they do share some of the same characteristics as males – however these manifest themselves in different ways.
Denial & minimisations of offending
Distorted cognitions about sexual offending & abuse in general.
Problematic relationship & intimacy deficits
Use of sex to regulate emotional states or fulfil intimacy needs.
Sexual gratification, desire for intimacy or instrumental goals such as revenge or humiliation.
Anti-social attitudes, associates and substance abuse also considered.
Although dynamic risk factors for males are well established-( deviant sexual interests, offence supportive attitudes, poor inter-personal functioning, poor self regulation) – dynamic risk factors are unknown – consequently the assessment of potential dynamic risk factors and treatment needs can only be based on elements that appear common among FSO and are suggestive of a relationship with offending behaviour.
Generally, the clinical research suggests that while FSO’s possess some unique features – they do share some of the same characteristics as males, however, the evidence suggests these manifest themselves in different ways for women.
Need to be aware that a simple transfer of knowledge from the male sex offender literature to females is not appropriate – an understanding of the literature on female sexual offenders and indeed women offenders is necessary to conduct the evaluation.
On the basis of the available evidence common to both male and female sex offenders are;
Denial and minimisation etc
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

5. Conducting the Assessment
Comprehensive psycho-social history examining– dispositional factors, antisocial personality characteristics, historical factors (adverse childhood experiences, prior criminal history); contextual factors (circumstances of offences, social networks); personal life circumstances (relationship and parenting status, educational, work & social functioning) & clinical factors (mental health/substance abuse history)
Examination of developmental & family history provides clues to the elements that have contributed to the elements that have contributed to the abusive behaviour.
History helps establish if/how past physical, emotional or sexual victimisation links to her offending via a pattern of coping.
Helps determine role of sexual relationships the woman's life, cognitions related to offending, type & extent of problematic relationships & presence/extent of general anti-social characteristics.
The assessment of FSO’s should follow the accepted practices in the general offender literature – Areas to be examined include, dispositional factors etc..
An examination of the developmental & family history is a good starting point. It helps the woman open up and become more comfortable during the evaluation before the focus turns to the offending behaviour itself,
The womans history also sets the stage for examining & understanding her current functioning.
This information provides clues to the elements that are likely linked to her offending behaviour.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

6. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Sexuality
Assessment must examine the sexual development history & role sex plays in her life.
Must also include examination of sexually deviant thoughts & behaviours.
Females less likely than males to be diagnosed as paedophiles
Deviant arousal & fantasies are part of the dynamic of offending behaviour in some FSO’s.
Caution to be taken not indiscriminately apply male knowledge of deviant arousal/fantasies to females.
Women's arousal patterns differ from males, much more fluid and do not demonstrate the specificity of males.
The assessment must examine the sexual development history and the role sex plays in the woman's life. The woman's beliefs about sex in general, gender roles, a sense of entitlement ( her own or co-offender) or refusal to acknowledge harm caused by abuse. The meaning assigned to sex in general by the woman may have a motivational role in her offending – within this context a careful examination of the coping patterns of women is required to determine whether she uses sex to alleviate negative emotional states.
As part of this the assessment must also include an examination of the potential presence of sexually deviant thoughts/behaviours to ascertain the role they may have played in the offending behaviour.
As with males, deviant arousal and fantasies are part of the dynamics of the offending behaviour in some FSO’s – some theories that in females deviant fantasies are simply a stage between negative emotions & offending rather than a true sexual preference for deviant sex. However, there has been several pieces of research into the clinical characteristics of those diagnosed with paedophilia – highlighting – life long sexual interests in children, masturbating to fantasies involving children and specific erotic fantasies age range of 3-4 years.
Lots of small studies found that offending was motivated by deviant arousals (also that arousal stemmed from feelings of power or that their victims were adult men)
But attempting to understand female arousal patterns by applying current knowledge developed on males could lead to invalid theoretical postulations as research indicates that women's sexual arousal patterns are much more fluid and tend not to demonstrate specificity.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

7. Problematic Relationships
Problematic relationships & Intimacy deficits appear quite different for females in contrast to males.
FSO seem to indicate a pattern of relationships characterised by abuse.
Excessive dependence and over reliance on partners.
Absence of practical & emotional support
The nature of problematic relationships & intimacy deficits appear quite different for FSO in contrast to males. Among male sex offenders intimacy deficits tend to manifiest themselves through some form of emotional identification with children, instability in his current itimate relationship, hostility towards women, general social rejection/loneliness and a general lack of concern for others).
In contrast FSO appear to exhibit a pattern of relationships characterised by abuse, and the research has shown that FSO’s are frequent victims of DV ( Gannon et al 2008)
Other studies have shown that excessive dependence or an over reliance on the men in their lives is an element that characterises FSO’s
Gannon et al also found that practical & emotional support from family & friends were lacking in all of their FSO’s offenders.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

8. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Victimisation
Past victimisation is not related to future recidivism.
Not all FSO’s have a history of sexual victimisation.
Frequency of its presence does warrant special attention.
History of past victimisation (physical, psychological, sexual) may relate via dysfunctional relationship patterns or mal-adaptive coping strategies.
Although past victimisation is not related to future recidivism, it is a common enough factor to warrant special attention – it may be related but it is important not to assume it is the cause of her sexual offending – eg not all FSO’s have a history of sexual victimisation, highly unlikely that victimisation alone is the main reason why the woman chose to sexually abuse, rather a history of victimisation is more likely related to offending via dysfunctional patterns of relating to others as well as patterns of coping that the woman developed as a result of the victimisations.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

9. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Cognitions
Links between pro-offending attitudes & criminal behaviour for all types of offenders for both genders is well established.
Researchers have found presence of core implicit theories previously identified in male SO’s
Uncontrollability
Dangerous world
Children as sexual beings
Nature of harm caused
Entitlement
These distorted schema have specific female slant. Eg dangerous world and uncontrollability influence by the presence of a co-offender
Core beliefs about relationships, children & gender roles derived from socio-cultural norms /experiences are likely to be intertwined with pro-offending attitudes ( ‘men are entitled to control others sexually’)
FSO’s found to hold distorted beliefs about both self & children as well as deny & minimise their involvement in abuse; ‘the victim is young so wont remember’ or ‘if I do this it will be less harmful than if he mess with her’
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

10. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
FSO who co-offend
Factor unique to FSO’s is frequent presence of a co-offender.
Early research posited that women were pre-dominantly coerced into offending.
Current research identifies a coerced subgroup & willing co-offender subgroup.
Some FSO’s engage in both solo & co-offending.
Coercion vs Inclination.
A factor unique to FSO is the frequent presence of a co-offender. Early research posited that women were predominantly coerced into offending by a male we now know that is not the case. While a subgroup has been identified as having been coerced into the offending another sub group co-offends willingly, including initiating the abuse. As part of the assessment the full extent of the woman's willingness to participate in the abuse needs examined.
Different treatment needs are likely to emerge if the woman was coerced into the abuse, as opposed to being a willing participant or an initiator. For example a coerced offender may demonstrate significant deficits in assertiveness and an exaggerated dependence on her co-offender.
Deviant arousal and fantasising & attitudes that condone sexual abuse may appear more frequently in initiators or willing participants.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

11. General anti-social characteristics
Includes antisocial attitudes, associates, substance misuse and emotional dyscontrol.
Some present with egocentric or antisocial features similar to those of males who sexually abuse.
Not clear yet on the extent to which anti-sociality plays a role in sexual offending for women.
Individual offending processes as well as general lifestyle issues should be carefully evaluated for presence of such attitudes
An often neglected aspect of FSO’s is the extent to which they demonstrate general anti-social attitudes, these characteristics include antisocial attitudes and associates, substance abuse as a precursor to offending and emotional control.
Some women who engage in sexually deviant behaviour do present with egocentric or anti-social features similar to men.
Unknown at this time, however is the extent to which anti-sociality plays a role in sexual offending among women. Individual offending processes as well as general lifestyle issues should be carefully evaluated for the presence of anti-social characteristics to determine additional treatment requirements.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018

12. McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018
Key Takeaways
Using risk tools designed for assessing adult male sex offenders grossly overestimates risk in FSO’s.
State of our current knowledge is weak and conclusions of likely risk factors for FSO’s continue to be tentative
Only indicator of potential for sexual recidivism is the presence of prior child abuse offences.
General recidivism is much more likely than sexual recidivism. Select a tool with general validity for female offenders (LSI-R)
Comprehensive assessments of risk and need should be undertaken examining those dynamic factors commonly found in both male and female clinical samples.
Simple transfer of knowledge from male sex offender literature to females not appropriate. Examine the factors from gendered perspective.
Base rate of sexual recidivism for FSO’s is extremely low.
Risk assessment tools for male sex offenders have not been validated for women.
Estimates of risk of recidivism are predicated on base rate of adult male SO”s – consequently given the low rates of recidivism rates for fSO, these would grossly overestimate risk.
The items in these risk assessment tools were selected based on their empirical associated relationship with recidivism, factors such as prior offences, having male/stranger or unrelated victims, however knowledge of likely risk factors for females are tentative.
Other that the finding that prior criminal history is related to non-sexual recidivism, the only indicator that appears related to the potential of sexual recidivism is the prescence of prior child abuse offences – a factor that does not appear in any risk assessment tools for males. Hence risk assessment tools not only overestimate but they provide overestimates on the basis of items that have no demonstrated links to sexual recidivism.
Since general recidivism is much more like than sexual recidivism evaluators should select a risk assessment tool that has been validated to assess general risk of recidivism among female offenders eg LSI-R (level of service inventory revised)
To specifically assess potential risk and need comprehensive assessment of risk should be completed, considering those dynamic factors that have been found in clinical samples and appear common to both male & female sexual offenders.
McGibbon Consultancy NOTA March 2018