1. The Microprocessor Age
1. Intel 4004 :-
4-bit data.
4096 bytes Memory.
45 instructions.
P-channel MOSFET Technology, speed 50 KIPs.
Used in video game system.
Main problem were its speed, word width, and memory size.
Intel released the 4040, update version of 4004.
TMS 1000 also produced 4-bit microprocessor.

2. 2. In 1971 Intel released the 8008, an extended 8-bit version of the 4004 microprocessor.
16 Kbytes.
48 instructions.
Slow speed.
Small size, slow speed, and instruction set limited.
Intel introduced the 8080 in 1973, 1st 8-bit microprocessor.
After six months, Motorola introduced MC6800 microprocessor.

3. Microprocessor:-
8-bit.
64 Kbytes.
Additional instructions.
10 times faster than the 8008.
Compatible with TTL, this made interfacing much easier and less expensive.
The 1st pc, the MITS Altair 8800was released in
The BASIC language interpreter, written for 8800 computer was developed in 1975, by Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
The assembler program for 8800 was written by Digital Research Corporation, which produced DR-DOS for pc.

4. 4. In 1977 Intel introduced 8085. last 8-bit general purpose microprocessor.
Execute software at an even higher speed (an addition that took 2 µs IPs on the 8080 required only 1.3 µs IPs on the 8085).
246 instructions.
The main advantages of the 8085 were its internal clock generator, internal system controller, and higher clock frequency.
Z-80 compatible with the 8085.

5. The Modern Microprocessor
1. In 1978, Intel released 8086 microprocessor, & 8088.
16-bit.
1Mbytes.
Executed instruction in as little as 400ns (2.5 MIPs).
4 or 6-byte instruction cache or queue that prefetched a few instructions before they were executed.
Over instructions.
These microprocessors are called CISC because of the number and complexity of instructions.

6. 2. In 1983 Intel released 80286. 16-bit. 16 Mbytes.
Few additional instructions.
Executed instruction in as little as 250ns (4 MIPs) with original release 8MHz.

7. 3. In 1986 arrival of the 80386 by Intel.
Represents a meager overhaul of Architecture.
32-bit.
32-bit memory address (4 G bytes).
80386SX /16-bit data / 16 M byte memory (24-bit).
80386SL /80386SLC /16-bit /32 M byte memory (25-bit).
80386SLC contained an internal cache memory.
In 1995 Intel released 80386EX. That called embedded PC.
80386EX /16-bit data /26-bit address /24-line in/out data /DRAM refresh controller/ programmable chip selection logic.

8. Single precision floating –point require 32-bit wide memory.
GUI.
80386 include a memory management unit (Hardware).

9. 4. In 1989, Intel released the
Incorporated an 80386, an coprocessor, and 8k byte cache memory system in to one integrated package.
50 MHz. about half of the instructions executed in 25 ns (50 MIPs).
80486DX2 (Double –Clocked Version). With 66 MHz / memory transfer executing at the rate of 33MHz.
80486DX4 (Triple –Clocked Version). With 100MHz / memory transfer at 33MHz.
80486DX4 executed instructions at about the same speed as the 60 MHz Pentium.
16k byte cache.

10. AMD ( Advanced Micro Devices) has produced a triple –Clocked Version.
Clock speed 120 MHz.
Bus speed 40 MHz.
Future promises to bring Microprocessors that internally execute instructions at rate of up to 10 GHz or higher.
OverDrive processors.

11. The Pentium Microprocessor
1. The Pentium I, introduced in 1993 was similar to and Microprocessor.
60 MHz /66MHz , 110 MIPs.
100 MHz, 150 MIPs (1.5 clocked version).
122 MHz /133 MHz ( double clocked version).
233 MHz (3.5 clocked version).
16k byte cache (8k byte instruction cache/8k byte data).
64-bit data bus.
4G byte memory system.
Bus speed 60 MHz or 66 MHz.

12. Wider data bus accommodated double Precession Floating – point numbers.
Dual integer processor (superscalar technology).
Jump predication technology.
MMX instruction.

13. Contains 21 million transistors.
2. Pentium pro processor.
Contains 21 million transistors.
Three integer units.
Floating – point unit.
150 MHz /166 MHz in 1995.
16k byte cache (L1) (8k byte instruction, 8k byte data).
256k byte (L2) cache.
Three execution engines.
Execute 32-bit code (useful with windows NT).
For server market.
4G byte memory or 64G byte memory (36-bit)

14. 3. Pentium II and Xeon Microprocessor.
In1997, Intel released PII, represent a new direction for Intel.
PII is placed on a small circuit board.
L2 cache found on the main circuit board.
L2 cache operates at the system bus speed of 60/66 MHz.
L2 cache and microprocessor are on a circuit board called the Pentium II module.
Onboard L2 cache operates at speed of 133 MHz and store 512K bytes.
Pentium II module is actually a Pentium Pro with MMX.
266 – 333 MHz used bus speed 66 MHz, 10ns SDRAM.
In 1998, 350, 400, 450 MHz used 100 MHz bus speed, 8ns SDRAM.

15. In mid – 1998, Intel announced Xeon.
Designed for high-end workstation & server applications.
Main difference between PII & Xeon:-
1. Xeon is available with an L1 32K bytes & L2 size
512K/1M/2M bytes.
2. Xeon functions with the 440GX chip set.
3. Xeon is also designed to function with four Xeons in the same system.

16. 4. Pentium III
Available on a board (slot 1) 512K cache.
flip-chip as older Pentium (socket) 256K cache.
Both use bus speed of 100 MHz.
Celeron uses bus speed 66 MHz.
Available in clock frequency up to 1GHz.

17. 5. Pentium 4
released in late 2000.
Speeds to 3.2 GHz and faster.
Uses RAMBUS or DDR memory technology.
L1 8K-32K bytes.
L2 256K-512Kbytes.
P4e L2 1M/2M bytes.
Shift from aluminum to copper interconnections inside the microprocessor.

18. The future of Microprocessor
Hyper –threading technology.
Embodies the CISC instruction set.
Parallel processing without any change to the instruction set or program.
Contains many microprocessors, each containing its own register set that is linked with other microprocessor’s registers.
True parallel processing without writing any special program.

19. In 2002, Itanium.
Greater parallelism.
128 general –purpose integer registers.
128 floating – point registers.
64 predicate registers.
Many execution units.
Designed for the server market.

20. Conceptual views of the microprocessors
CPU
Coprocessor 8K
L1 cache
CPU 1
CPU 2
Copro
16K L1 Cache
80486DX
Pentium

21. Pentium II, Pentium III, or Pentium 4
CPU 1
CPU 2
CPU 3
Copro
16K L1 Cache
256K L2 Cache
CPU 1
CPU 2
CPU 3
Copro
32K L1 Cache
512K L2 Cache Or
256K L2 Cache
Pentium Pro
Pentium II, Pentium III, or Pentium 4

22. The µp-Based Personal computer system
1.The Memory System.
The memory structure of all Intel –based personal computers are similar.
1st personal computer based on the 8088, introduced in 1981 by IBM.
The memory system is divided into three main parts:-
TPA (Transient Program Area).
System area.
XMS (Extended Memory System).

23. The memory map of the personal computer
15M bytes in the or 80386SX 31M bytes in the 80386SL/SLC 63M bytes in the 80386EX 4095M bytes in the 80386DX,80486, & Pentium 64G bytes in the Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, & Pentium 4
TPA
640K bytes
System area
384K bytes
Expanded Memory
1M bytes of real ( conventional ) memory
The memory map of the personal computer

24. 1.The TPA.
Holds the DOS operating system and other programs that control the computer system.
It is a DOS concept and not really applicable in windows.
Also stores any currently active or inactive DOS application programs.
640K bytes.
Memory remaining for application software is about 628K bytes if MSDOS 7.x is used as an operating system.
Earlier versions of DOS require more of the TPA area.

25. The memory map of the TPA in a personal computer
Free TPA
DOS communications area
IO.SYS program
MSDOS program
BIOS communications area
Interrupt vectors
Device drivers
Such as MOUSE.SYS
COMMAND.COM
9FFFF
9FFF0
08E30
08490
02530
01160
00700
00500
00400
00000
The memory map of the TPA in a personal computer

26. Interrupt vectors access various features of the:-
DOS.
BIOS (Basic I/O System).
Applications.
System BIOS and DOS communications areas contain transient data used by programs to access I/O devices and the internal features of the computer system.
IO.SYS contains programs that allow DOS to use the keyboard, video display, printer, and other I/O devices found in PC. IO.SYS program links DOS to the programs stored on the system BIOS ROM.
Drivers are programs that control installable I/O devices.
COMMAND.COM program controls the operation of the computer from the keyboard when operated in DOS mode.

27. Hard disk controller ROM
The system area of a typical personal computer.
Video RAM
(text area)
(graphics area)
Video BIOS ROM
Free area
Hard disk controller ROM
LAN controller ROM
BASIC language ROM
(only on early PCs)
BIOS system ROM
A0000
B0000
C0000
C8000
E0000
F0000
FFFFF

28. 2. The System Area
Video display RAM and video control programs on ROM or flash memory.
Start at location A0000H and extends to location C7FFFH.
The size and amount of memory used depends on the type of video display adapter attached to the system.
Adapters generally have their video RAM located at A0000H-AFFFFH, which stores graphical or bit-mapped data.
The memory at B0000H-BFFFFH stores text data.
The video BIOS, located on a ROM or flash memory, is at locations C0000H-C7FFFH and contains programs that control the DOS video display.
The area at locations C8000H-DFFFFH is open or free.
Memory locations E0000H-EFFFFH contain the BASIC language.

29. BIOS system ROM controls the operation of the basic I/O devices connected to the computer system.
1st part contains programs that set up the computer.
2nd part contains procedure that control the basic I/O system.

30. Windows system. It has two main parts:- TPA.
Windows TPA
Windows System Area
FFFFFFFF
7FFFFFFF
It has two main parts:-
TPA.
1st 2G bytes from H to 7FFFFFFFH.
System area.
Last 2G bytes from H to FFFFFFFFH.
The same idea used to construct the DOS memory map was also used in modern Windows –based system.
The memory map used by Windows XP.

31. ISA ( Industry Standard Architecture )
8-bit in the 8086/8088.
16-bit in the or above µp.
Peripheral bus.
8MHz.
EISA (Extended ISA).
32-bit found in a few older 80386DX and
VESA ( Video electronics Standards Association).
32-bit in the
Interfaces disk and video to the µp.
Function at the same clocking speed as the µp.
A recent modification to the VESA local bus supports 64-bit of data bus of the Pentium µp.

32. PCI (peripherals Component Interconnect) bus.
32- or 64-bit that is specifically designed to function with the Pentium through Pentium 4 µp.
33MHz.
USB (Universal Serial Bus).
Used to connect peripherals devices such as keyboards, mouse, modems, and sound cards to µp.
Reduce system cost by reducing the number of wires.
Sound system have a separate power supply from the PC, which means much less noise.
10Mbps in USB1.
480Mbps in USB2.

33. AGP ( Advanced Graphics Port ).
It transfers data between the video card and the µp.
64-bit.
66MHz or 533M bytes per second.
The latest AGP speed is 8X or 2G bytes per second.
Accommodate the new DVD players for the PC.
ATA interface ( SATA) for hard disk drives.
It transfers data from PC to the hard disk.
150M bytes per second.
450M bytes per second.